Detection and primary processing of physical, chemical and thermal sensory stimuli by peripheral sensory nerve fibers is key to sensory perception in animals and humans. These peripheral sensory nerve fibers express a plethora of receptors and ion channel proteins which detect and initiate specific sensory stimuli. Methods are available to characterize the electrical properties of peripheral sensory nerve fibers innervating the skin, which can also be utilized to identify the functional expression of specific ion channel proteins in these fibers. However, similar electrophysiological methods are not available (and are also difficult to develop) for the detection of the functional expression of receptors and ion channel proteins in peripheral sensory nerve fibers innervating other visceral organs, including the most challenging tissues such as bone. Moreover, such electrophysiological methods cannot be utilized to determine the expression of non-excitable proteins in peripheral sensory nerve fibers. Therefore, immunostaining of peripheral/visceral tissue samples for sensory nerve fivers provides the best possible way to determine the expression of specific proteins of interest in these nerve fibers. So far, most of the protein expression studies in sensory neurons have utilized immunostaining procedures in sensory ganglia, where the information is limited to the expression of specific proteins in the cell body of specific types or subsets of sensory neurons. Here we report detailed methods/protocols for the preparation of peripheral/visceral tissue samples for immunostaining of peripheral sensory nerve fibers. We specifically detail methods for the preparation of skin or plantar punch biopsy and bone (femur) sections from mice for immunostaining of peripheral sensory nerve fibers. These methods are not only key to the qualitative determination of protein expression in peripheral sensory neurons, but also provide a quantitative assay method for determining changes in protein expression levels in specific types or subsets of sensory fibers, as well as for determining the morphological and/or anatomical changes in the number and density of sensory fibers during various pathological states. Further, these methods are not confined to the staining of only sensory nerve fibers, but can also be used for staining any types of nerve fibers in the skin, bones and other visceral tissue.

The Journal of Biological Chemistry

Proinflammatory prostaglandin E2 is known to sensitize sensory neurons to noxious stimuli. This sensitization is mediated by the cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA) signal pathway. The capsaicin receptor TRPV1, a non-selective cation channel of sensory neurons involved in the sensation of inflammatory pain, is a target of PKA-mediated phosphorylation. Our goal was to investigate the influence of PKA on Ca(2+)-dependent desensitization of capsaicin-activated currents. By using site-directed mutagenesis, we created point mutations at PKA consensus sites and studied wild-type and mutant channels transiently expressed in HEK293t cells under whole-cell voltage clamp. We found that forskolin, a stimulator of adenylate cyclase, decreased desensitization of TRPV1. The selective PKA inhibitor H89 inhibited this effect. Mimicking phosphorylation at PKA consensus sites by replacing Ser-6, Ser-116, Thr-144, Thr-370, Ser-502, Ser-774, or Ser-820 with aspartate resulted in five mutations (S116D, T144D, T370D, S774D, and S820D) that exhibited decreased desensitization as well. However, disrupting phosphorylation by replacing respective sites with alanine resulted in four mutations (S6A, T144A, T370A, and S820A) with desensitization properties resembling those of the aspartate mutations. Significant changes in relative permeabilities for Ca2+ over Na+ or in capsaicin sensitivity could not explain changes in desensitization properties of mutant channels. In mutations S116A, S116D, T370A, and T370D, pretreatment of cells with forskolin did not reduce desensitization as compared with wild-type and other mutant channels. We conclude that Ser-116 and possibly Thr-370 are the most important residues involved in the mechanism of PKA-dependent reduction of desensitization of capsaicin-activated currents.

Nature Neuroscience

Voltage-dependent Kv2.1 K(+) channels, which mediate delayed rectifier Kv currents (I(K)), are expressed in large clusters on the somata and dendrites of principal pyramidal neurons, where they regulate neuronal excitability. Here we report activity-dependent changes in the localization and biophysical properties of Kv2.1. In the kainate model of continuous seizures in rat, we find a loss of Kv2.1 clustering in pyramidal neurons in vivo. Biochemical analysis of Kv2.1 in the brains of these rats shows a marked dephosphorylation of Kv2.1. In cultured rat hippocampal pyramidal neurons, glutamate stimulation rapidly causes dephosphorylation of Kv2.1, translocation of Kv2.1 from clusters to a more uniform localization, and a shift in the voltage-dependent activation of I(K). An influx of Ca(2+) leading to calcineurin activation is both necessary and sufficient for these effects. Our finding that neuronal activity modifies the phosphorylation state, localization and function of Kv2.1 suggests an important link between excitatory neurotransmission and the intrinsic excitability of pyramidal neurons.

Neurotoxicology

Neurons use a variety of mechanisms to dynamically control their own signaling capabilities. Regulation of voltage-dependent K+ channel localization and function has long been recognized as a major mechanism to achieve dynamic regulation of intrinsic neuronal excitability in a number of mammalian and non-mammalian neurons. Our recent evidence, together with compelling data from other laboratories, suggests that in mammalian neurons the Kv2.1 channel may play an especially prominent role in determining intrinsic neuronal excitability. Kv2.1 is widely expressed in brain and composes the majority of delayed rectifier K+ current in pyramidal neurons in cortex and hippocampus, and is also widely expressed in interneurons. Dynamic modulation of Kv2.1 localization and function by a mechanism involving activity-dependent Kv2.1 dephosphorylation dramatically impacts intrinsic excitability of neurons. Here we review previous studies of Kv2.1 localization and function in neurons, and summarize recent work regarding dynamic regulation of these characteristics. We also discuss possible roles of the Kv2.1 channel in neuronal and network excitability.

The Journal of Neuroscience : the Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience

Ischemic stroke is often accompanied by neuronal hyperexcitability (i.e., seizures), which aggravates brain damage. Therefore, suppressing stroke-induced hyperexcitability and associated excitoxicity is a major focus of treatment for ischemic insults. Both ATP-dependent and Ca2+-activated K+ channels have been implicated in protective mechanisms to suppress ischemia-induced hyperexcitability. Here we provide evidence that the localization and function of Kv2.1, the major somatodendritic delayed rectifier voltage-dependent K+ channel in central neurons, is regulated by hypoxia/ischemia-induced changes in metabolic state and intracellular Ca2+ levels. Hypoxia/ischemia in rat brain induced a dramatic dephosphorylation of Kv2.1 and the translocation of surface Kv2.1 from clusters to a uniform localization. In cultured rat hippocampal neurons, chemical ischemia (CI) elicited a similar dephosphorylation and translocation of Kv2.1. These events were reversible and were mediated by Ca2+ release from intracellular stores and calcineurin-mediated Kv2.1 dephosphorylation. CI also induced a hyperpolarizing shift in the voltage-dependent activation of neuronal delayed rectifier currents (IK), leading to enhanced IK and suppressed neuronal excitability. The IK blocker tetraethylammonium reversed the ischemia-induced suppression of excitability and aggravated ischemic neuronal damage. Our results show that Kv2.1 can act as a novel Ca2+- and metabolic state-sensitive K+ channel and suggest that dynamic modulation of IK/Kv2.1 in response to hypoxia/ischemia suppresses neuronal excitability and could confer neuroprotection in response to brief ischemic insults.

The Journal of Neuroscience : the Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience

Modulation of K+ channels is widely used to dynamically regulate neuronal membrane excitability. The voltage-gated K+ channel Kv2.1 is an abundant delayed rectifier K+ (IK) channel expressed at high levels in many types of mammalian central neurons where it regulates diverse aspects of membrane excitability. Neuronal Kv2.1 is constitutively phosphorylated, localized in high-density somatodendritic clusters, and has a relatively depolarized voltage dependence of activation. Here, we show that the clustering and voltage-dependent gating of endogenous Kv2.1 in cultured rat hippocampal neurons are modulated by cholinergic stimulation, a common form of neuromodulation. The properties of neuronal Kv2.1 are recapitulated in recombinant Kv2.1 expressed in human embryonic kidney 293 (HEK293) cells, but not COS-1 cells, because of cell background-specific differences in Kv2.1 phosphorylation. As in neurons, Kv2.1 in HEK293 cells is dynamically regulated by cholinergic stimulation, which leads to Ca2+/calcineurin-dependent dephosphorylation of Kv2.1, dispersion of channel clusters, and hyperpolarizing shifts in the voltage-dependent gating properties of the channel. Immunocytochemical, biochemical, and biophysical analyses of chimeric Kv channels show that the Kv2.1 cytoplasmic C-terminal domain can act as an autonomous domain sufficient to transfer Kv2.1-like clustering, voltage-dependent activation, and cholinergic modulation to diverse Kv channels. These findings provide novel mechanistic insights into cholinergic modulation of ion channels and regulation of the localization and voltage-dependent gating properties of the abundant neuronal Kv2.1 channel by cholinergic and other neuromodulatory stimuli.

Science

Dynamic modulation of ion channels by phosphorylation underlies neuronal plasticity. The Kv2.1 potassium channel is highly phosphorylated in resting mammalian neurons. Activity-dependent Kv2.1 dephosphorylation by calcineurin induces graded hyperpolarizing shifts in voltage-dependent activation, causing suppression of neuronal excitability. Mass spectrometry-SILAC (stable isotope labeling with amino acids in cell culture) identified 16 Kv2.1 phosphorylation sites, of which 7 were dephosphorylated by calcineurin. Mutation of individual calcineurin-regulated sites to alanine produced incremental shifts mimicking dephosphorylation, whereas mutation to aspartate yielded equivalent resistance to calcineurin. Mutations at multiple sites were additive, showing that variable phosphorylation of Kv2.1 at a large number of sites allows graded activity-dependent regulation of channel gating and neuronal firing properties.

The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics

The excitability of sensory neurons depends on the expression of various voltage-gated Na+ channel isoforms. The tetrodotoxin-resistant (TTXr) Na+ channel Na(v)1.8 accounts for the electroresponsiveness of nociceptive neurons and contributes to inflammatory and neuropathic pain. Na+ channel blockers are clinically employed for chronic pain management, but side effects limit their use. There is conflicting information whether their potency to block tetrodotoxin-sensitive (TTXs) and TTXr Na+ channels differs. We analyzed the action of lidocaine and amitriptyline on TTXr Na(v)1.8 heterologously expressed in ND7/23 cells in comparison with TTXs Na+ channels endogenously expressed in ND7/23 cells. TTXr Na(v)1.8 and TTXs currents were investigated under whole-cell voltage-clamp. At a holding potential of -80 mV, lidocaine was 5-fold and amitriptyline 8-fold more potent to tonically block TTXs than Na(v)1.8 currents. This was due to a higher percentage of TTXs channels residing in the inactivated, high-affinity state at this potential. Tonic block of either resting or inactivated channels by lidocaine or amitriptyline revealed little differences between TTXs and Na(v)1.8 channels. Use-dependent block by amitriptyline was similar in TTXs and Na(v)1.8 channels. Surprisingly, use-dependent block by lidocaine was more pronounced in Na(v)1.8 than in TTXs channels. This result was confirmed in dorsal root ganglion neurons and is associated with the greater tendency of Na(v)1.8 to enter a slow inactivated state. Our data suggest that lidocaine could selectively block Na(v)1.8-mediated action potential firing. It is conceivable that the expression pattern of Na+ channels in sensory neurons might influence the efficiency of Na+ channel blockers used for chronic pain management.

FASEB Journal : Official Publication of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology

Modulation of voltage-gated potassium (Kv) channel surface expression can profoundly affect neuronal excitability. Some, but not all, mammalian Shaker or Kv1 alpha subunits contain a dominant endoplasmic reticulum (ER) retention signal in their pore region, preventing surface expression of Kv1.1 homotetrameric channels and of heteromeric Kv1 channels containing more than one Kv1.1 subunit. The critical amino acid residues within this ER pore-region retention signal are also critical for high-affinity binding of snake dendrotoxins (DTX). This suggests that ER retention may be mediated by an ER protein with a domain structurally similar to that of DTX. One facet of such a model is that expression of soluble DTX in the ER lumen should compete for binding to the retention protein and allow for surface expression of retained Kv1.1. Here, we show that luminal DTX expression dramatically increased both the level of cell surface Kv1.1 immunofluorescence staining and the proportion of Kv1.1 with processed N-linked oligosaccharides. Electrophysiological analyses showed that luminal DTX expression led to significant increases in Kv1.1 currents. Together, these data showed that luminal DTX expression increases surface expression of functional Kv1.1 homotetrameric channels and support a model whereby a DTX-like ER protein regulates abundance of cell surface Kv1 channels.

The Journal of Neuroscience : the Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience

Activity-dependent dephosphorylation of neuronal Kv2.1 channels yields hyperpolarizing shifts in their voltage-dependent activation and homoeostatic suppression of neuronal excitability. We recently identified 16 phosphorylation sites that modulate Kv2.1 function. Here, we show that in mammalian neurons, compared with other regulated sites, such as serine (S)563, phosphorylation at S603 is supersensitive to calcineurin-mediated dephosphorylation in response to kainate-induced seizures in vivo, and brief glutamate stimulation of cultured hippocampal neurons. In vitro calcineurin digestion shows that supersensitivity of S603 dephosphorylation is an inherent property of Kv2.1. Conversely, suppression of neuronal activity by anesthetic in vivo causes hyperphosphorylation at S603 but not S563. Distinct regulation of individual phosphorylation sites allows for graded and bidirectional homeostatic regulation of Kv2.1 function. S603 phosphorylation represents a sensitive bidirectional biosensor of neuronal activity.

Science's STKE : Signal Transduction Knowledge Environment

Among ion channels, voltage-gated calcium channels have been considered unique in their ability to mediate signaling events independent of the flow of ions through their pore. A voltage-gated potassium channel termed Kv2.1 has been identified as playing a role remarkably similar to one ion-independent function of calcium channels, facilitating regulated exocytosis through a direct interaction with a t-SNARE [soluble NSF (N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor) attachment protein receptor] component of the vesicle release machinery. Kv2.1 overexpression enhances depolarization-induced secretion from the neuroendocrine-like PC12 cell line, and a nonconducting Kv2.1 mutant can accomplish the same feat. Kv2.1 interacts directly with syntaxin 1A, a plasma membrane t-SNARE component of the vesicle docking and fusion apparatus. Deletion of the syntaxin 1A-binding segment from Kv2.1 abolishes its ability to promote vesicle release, supporting a mechanism whereby Kv2.1 presumably transfers voltage-dependent conformational changes induced by membrane depolarization to interacting t-SNAREs to affect exocytosis. Kv2.1, a major mediator of electrical events in central neurons, cardiac and smooth muscle, and pancreatic beta cells, must now also be recognized as a physical mediator of secretion. That Kv2.1 is phosphorylated at numerous sites within the syntaxin 1A binding segment raises the possibility that its role in secretion may be dynamically regulated by diverse signaling events.

The Journal of Neuroscience : the Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience

Voltage-gated potassium (Kv) channels comprise four transmembrane alpha subunits, often associated with cytoplasmic beta subunits that impact channel expression and function. Here, we show that cell surface expression, voltage-dependent activation gating, and phosphorylation-dependent modulation of Kv2.1 are regulated by cytoplasmic N/C interaction within the alpha subunit. Kv2.1 surface expression is greatly reduced by C-terminal truncation. Tailless Kv2.1 channels exhibit altered voltage-dependent gating properties and lack the bulk of the phosphorylation-dependent modulation of channel gating. Remarkably, the soluble C terminus of Kv2.1 associates with tailless channels and rescues their expression, function, and phosphorylation-dependent modulation. Soluble N and C termini of Kv2.1 can also interact directly. We also show that the N/C-terminal interaction in Kv2.1 is governed by a 34 aa motif in the juxtamembrane cytoplasmic C terminus, and a 17 aa motif located in the N terminus at a position equivalent to the beta subunit binding site in other Kv channels. Deletion of either motif disrupts N/C-terminal interaction and surface expression, function, and phosphorylation-dependent modulation of Kv2.1 channels. These findings provide novel insights into intrinsic mechanisms for the regulation of Kv2.1 trafficking, gating, and phosphorylation-dependent modulation through cytoplasmic N/C-terminal interaction, which resembles alpha/beta subunit interaction in other Kv channels.

Channels

The K(v)2.1 potassium channel plays an important role in regulating membrane excitability and is highly phosphorylated in mammalian neurons. Our previous results showed that variable phosphorylation of K(v)2.1 at multiple sites allows graded activity-dependent regulation of channel gating. Our previous studies also found functional differences between recombinant K(v)2.1 channels expressed in HEK293 cells and COS-1 cells that were eliminated upon complete dephosphorylation of K(v)2.1. To better understand how phosphorylation affects K(v)2.1 gating in HEK293 and COS-1 cells we used stable isotope labeling by amino acids in cell culture (SILAC) and mass spectrometry to determine the level of phosphorylation at one newly and thirteen previously identified sites on K(v)2.1 purified from HEK293 and COS-1 cells. We identified seven phosphorylation sites on the K(v)2.1 C-terminus that exhibit different levels of phosphorylation in HEK293 and COS-1 cells. Six sites have enhanced phosphorylation in HEK293 compared to COS-1, while one site exhibits enhanced phosphorylation in COS-1 cells. No sites were found phosphorylated in one cell type and not the other. Interestingly, the sites exhibiting differential phosphorylation in HEK293 and COS-1 cells under basal conditions are similar to the subset targeted by calcineurin-mediated signaling pathways. The data presented here suggests that differential phosphorylation at a specific subset of sites, as opposed to utilization of novel cell-specific phosphorylation sites, can explain differences in the gating properties of K(v)2.1 in different cell types under basal conditions, and in the same cell type under basal versus stimulated conditions.

Physiological Reviews

The intrinsic electrical properties and the synaptic input-output relationships of neurons are governed by the action of voltage-dependent ion channels. The localization of specific populations of ion channels with distinct functional properties at discrete sites in neurons dramatically impacts excitability and synaptic transmission. Molecular cloning studies have revealed a large family of genes encoding voltage-dependent ion channel principal and auxiliary subunits, most of which are expressed in mammalian central neurons. Much recent effort has focused on determining which of these subunits coassemble into native neuronal channel complexes, and the cellular and subcellular distributions of these complexes, as a crucial step in understanding the contribution of these channels to specific aspects of neuronal function. Here we review progress made on recent studies aimed to determine the cellular and subcellular distribution of specific ion channel subunits in mammalian brain neurons using in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry. We also discuss the repertoire of ion channel subunits in specific neuronal compartments and implications for neuronal physiology. Finally, we discuss the emerging mechanisms for determining the discrete subcellular distributions observed for many neuronal ion channels.

Channels

KV2.1 is the prominent somatodendritic sustained or delayed rectifier voltage-gated potassium (KV) channel in mammalian central neurons, and is a target for activity-dependent modulation via calcineurin-dependent dephosphorylation. Using hanatoxin-mediated block of KV2.1 we show that, in cultured rat hippocampal neurons, glutamate stimulation leads to significant hyperpolarizing shifts in the voltage-dependent activation and inactivation gating properties of the KV2.1-component of delayed rectifier K+ (IK) currents. In computer models of hippocampal neurons, these glutamate- stimulated shifts in the gating of the KV2.1-component of IK lead to a dramatic suppression of action potential firing frequency. Current-clamp experiments in cultured rat hippocampal neurons showed glutamate stimulation induced a similar suppression of neuronal firing frequency. Membrane depolarization also resulted in similar hyperpolarizing shifts in the voltage-dependent gating properties of neuronal IK currents, and suppression of neuronal firing. The glutamate-induced effects on neuronal firing were eliminated by hanatoxin, but not by dendrotoxin-K, a blocker of KV1.1-containing channels. These studies together demonstrate a specific contribution of modulation of KV2.1 channels in the activity-dependent regulation of intrinsic neuronal excitability.

Neuron

During development of the central nervous system, precise synaptic connections between presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons are formed. While significant progress has been made in our understanding of AMPA receptor trafficking during synaptic plasticity, less is known about the molecules that recruit AMPA receptors to nascent synapses during synaptogenesis. Here we identify a type II transmembrane protein (SynDIG1) that regulates AMPA receptor content at developing synapses in dissociated rat hippocampal neurons. SynDIG1 colocalizes with AMPA receptors at synapses and at extrasynaptic sites and associates with AMPA receptors in heterologous cells and brain. Altered levels of SynDIG1 in cultured neurons result in striking changes in excitatory synapse number and function. SynDIG1-mediated synapse development is dependent on association with AMPA receptors via its extracellular C terminus. Intriguingly, SynDIG1 content in dendritic spines is regulated by neuronal activity. Altogether, we define SynDIG1 as an activity-regulated transmembrane protein that regulates excitatory synapse development.

Circulation Research

Parasympathetic regulation of heart rate is mediated by acetylcholine binding to G protein-coupled muscarinic M2 receptors, which activate heterotrimeric G(i/o) proteins to promote G protein-coupled inwardly rectifying K(+) (GIRK) channel activation. Regulator of G protein signaling (RGS) proteins, which function to inactivate G proteins, are indispensable for normal parasympathetic control of the heart. However, it is unclear which of the more than 20 known RGS proteins function to negatively regulate and thereby ensure normal parasympathetic control of the heart.

The Journal of Biological Chemistry

γ-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) release from inhibitory interneurons located within the cerebellar cortex limits the extent of neuronal excitation in part through activation of metabotropic GABA(B) receptors. Stimulation of these receptors triggers a number of downstream signaling events, including activation of GIRK channels by the Gβγ dimer resulting in membrane hyperpolarization and inhibition of neurotransmitter release from presynaptic sites. Here, we identify RGS6, a member of the R7 subfamily of RGS proteins, as a key regulator of GABA(B)R signaling in cerebellum. RGS6 is enriched in the granule cell layer of the cerebellum along with neuronal GIRK channel subunits 1 and 2 where RGS6 forms a complex with known binding partners Gβ(5) and R7BP. Mice lacking RGS6 exhibit abnormal gait and ataxia characterized by impaired rotarod performance improved by treatment with a GABA(B)R antagonist. RGS6(-/-) mice administered baclofen also showed exaggerated motor coordination deficits compared with their wild-type counterparts. Isolated cerebellar neurons natively expressed RGS6, GABA(B)R, and GIRK channel subunits, and cerebellar granule neurons from RGS6(-/-) mice showed a significant delay in the deactivation kinetics of baclofen-induced GIRK channel currents. These results establish RGS6 as a key component of GABA(B)R signaling and represent the first demonstration of an essential role for modulatory actions of RGS proteins in adult cerebellum. Dysregulation of RGS6 expression in human patients could potentially contribute to loss of motor coordination and, thus, pharmacological manipulation of RGS6 levels might represent a viable means to treat patients with ataxias of cerebellar origin.