Chapter 23
免疫系统
Chapter 23
Osmoregulation and Excretion
The kidneys are two large bean-shaped organs located in the upper abdomen. They filter the blood several times a day to remove toxins and rebalance water …
The function of the kidneys is to filter, reabsorb, secrete, and excrete. Every day the kidneys filter nearly 180 liters of blood, initially removing …
The urea cycle describes how liver cells convert ammonia to urea. Ammonia is a toxic waste product of protein catabolism. Land animals must convert …
The renin-aldosterone system is an endocrine system which guides the renal absorption of water and electrolytes, thus managing blood pressure and …
When cells are placed in a hypotonic (low-salt) fluid, they can swell and burst. Meanwhile, cells in a hypertonic solution—with a higher salt …
Malpighian tubules are specialized structures found in the digestive systems of many arthropods, including most insects, that handle excretion and …
Animals have evolved different strategies for excretion, the removal of waste from the body. Most waste must be dissolved in water to be excreted, so an …
Organisms must keep bodily fluids at a constant temperature and pH while maintaining specific solute concentrations in order to support life functions. …
The number of patients with end-stage renal disease, and the number of kidney allograft recipients continuously increases. Episodes of acute cellular …
Measurements of glomerular filtration rate (GFR), and the fractional excretion of sodium (Na) and potassium (K) are critical in assessing renal function …
Free 3-nitrotyrosine (3-NT) has been extensively used as a possible biomarker for oxidative stress. Increased levels of 3-NT have been reported in a wide …