Learning

Learning involves acquiring knowledge or skills through practice, experience, or observation. The results seen after learning are relatively permanent …

Associative learning occurs when a connection is made between two stimuli or events. For example, a child may learn to clean their room regularly if they …

While studying dogs' digestive systems, Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, discovered that behaviors can be learned through association. He noticed …

Classical conditioning typically has five key principles. During acquisition, a neutral stimulus, such as a bell, is paired with an unconditioned …

Classical conditioning has real-world applications dependent on the conditioning order. Higher-order or second-order conditioning occurs when a neutral …

Classical conditioning can explain several commonly observed behaviors in daily life. Watson and Rayner observed that pairing a white rat with a loud …

Operant conditioning involves reinforcing or punishing behavior to alter its likelihood. For example, praising a child for completing homework exemplifies …

B. F. Skinner built the theory of operant conditioning on the concept of the law of effect, proposed by Edward Thorndike. Thorndike placed a hungry cat in …

Reinforcement can be positive or negative. Positive reinforcement adds something desirable, and negative reinforcement removes something undesirable. …

Avoidance learning is a distinct response to negative reinforcement. It occurs when an individual learns that a specific behavior, such as avoiding …

Negative reinforcement and punishment serve distinct functions in behavior modification. Negative reinforcement improves the desired behavior by removing …

Shaping is a method in operant conditioning where successive approximations of a target behavior are rewarded. For instance, an individual learns to write …

Primary reinforcers have innate reinforcing qualities that are not learned. For humans, primary reinforcers include food, sleep, affection, and shelter, …

Generalization, discrimination, and extinction are key concepts in operant conditioning. Generalization involves performing a reinforced behavior in …

Continuous reinforcement, like giving a dog a treat every time it sits in a place, reinforces the sitting behavior. Conversely, partial reinforcement …

In operant conditioning, timing is crucial for reinforcement. Studies show that animals such as rats and cats require immediate reinforcement for …

Behavior modification is a method used to change someone's behavior through a system of rewards and punishments. It uses operant conditioning to …

Cognitive learning includes purposive behavior, incidental learning, and insight learning. Tolman proposed that behavior is goal-directed and must be …

Tolman emphasized that behavior is often purposive or goal-directed. For instance, an employee working towards a promotion consistently puts in extra …

Observational learning, also known as imitation or modeling, occurs when an individual observes and replicates another's behavior. The Bobo doll …

Modeling involves four key steps. The first step is attention. Consider a yoga session in which the instructor shows all the participants how to perform …

Conditioned taste aversion, also known as sauce bearnaise syndrome, occurs when classical conditioning leads to avoidance reactions to certain food …

Phobias such as darkness, heights, deep water, and blood are common among people and often occur without any prior frightening experiences. Evolution …

Instinctive drift refers to the tendency of animals to revert to their innate behaviors despite repeated reinforcement. Breland and Breland conducted an …

Metacognition is a conscious process where individuals are aware of their cognitive processes and executive functioning. For example, a writer reflecting …