Insulin and Hypoglycemic Drugs

Carbohydrates consumed through foods are converted into glucose, a crucial energy source for the body. In the prandial state, high blood glucose levels …

The pancreas comprises highly vascularized and innervated pancreatic islets, encompassing α, β, δ, PP, and ε endocrine cells. Amongst …

The insulin receptor belongs to the receptor tyrosine kinase family. It comprises disulfide-linked α/β dimers, forming a transmembrane …

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by hyperglycemia. The two most common types of diabetes mellitus are type 1 and type 2. …

Diabetes can be initially identified based on symptoms. Hyperglycemic patients may present common symptoms, including polyuria, polydipsia, fatigue, and …

The goals of diabetes therapy include glycemic control, alleviating hyperglycemia-related symptoms, and preventing or reducing chronic end-organ …

The pancreatic β-cell's endoplasmic reticulum synthesizes preproinsulin comprising a signal peptide, B and A chains, and a C-peptide. The …

Insulin preparations, based on their duration of action, are categorized as short-acting and long-acting. Short-acting regular insulin forms hexamers, …

Insulin dosage regimens generally include a mixture of analogs given as daily injections. Typically, most patients are prescribed long and short-acting …

Sulfonylureas are a class of insulin secretagogues. They are used as oral hypoglycemic agents for managing Type 2 diabetes. Structurally, these drugs …

Biguanides are insulin sensitizers that enhance glucose uptake, reducing insulin resistance. Unlike sulfonylureas, they do not stimulate insulin …

Glinides are insulin secretagogues that trigger insulin release from β cells by inhibiting KATP channels and controlling potassium efflux. They share …

α-glucosidase inhibitors impede intestinal α-glucosidase enzymes, delaying the digestion of starch and disaccharides. This effectively curtails …

Oral glucose intake triggers gut hormones like GLP-1 and GIP called incretins, which stimulate insulin secretion. Both GLPs and glucagon originate from …

Dipeptidyl peptidase 4, or DPP-4 inhibitors, called gliptins inhibit incretin hormone inactivation. These drugs bind to DPP-4,  increasing the levels …

Without prolonged fasting, healthy individuals maintain blood glucose levels >80 mg/dL due to a well-adapted neuroendocrine system. However, …