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Podsumowanie

Cancer is a complex disease that is influenced by the tissue surrounding the tumor as well as local pro- and anti-inflammatory mediators. Therefore, orthotropic injection models, rather than subcutaneous models may be useful to study cancer progression in a manner that better mimics human pathology.

Abstract

Breast cancer growth can be studied in mice using a plethora of models. Genetic manipulation of breast cancer cells may provide insights into the functions of proteins involved in oncogenic progression or help to discover new tumor suppressors. In addition, injecting cancer cells into mice with different genotypes might provide a better understanding of the importance of the stromal compartment. Many models may be useful to investigate certain aspects of disease progression but do not recapitulate the entire cancerous process. In contrast, breast cancer cells engraftment to the mammary fat pad of mice better recapitulates the location of the disease and presence of the proper stromal compartment and therefore better mimics human cancerous disease. In this article, we describe how to implant breast cancer cells into mice orthotopically and explain how to collect tissues to analyse the tumor milieu and metastasis to distant organs. Using this model, many aspects (growth, angiogenesis, and metastasis) of cancer can be investigated simply by providing a proper environment for tumor cells to grow.

Introduction

Cancer is a very complex disease that has been subject to studies for over centuries. Breast cancer is the most common cancer type; it occurs predominantly in females but may sporadically also occur in males²⁷. The disease is mainly caused by the loss of control mechanism governing cell division which in turn leads to an infinite growth of cells in the body. These malfunctions can be caused by several mechanisms: first, healthy cells need growth signals from the surrounding cells in order to proliferate whereas cancer cells make their own growth factors and increase the expression of growth factor receptors thus obtaining a higher proliferative rate¹; second, cancer cells are less susceptible to anti-proliferative signals⁸; third, to balance the cell number in the body cell death is also required; however, cancer cells escape from programmed cell death, termed apoptosis¹⁴; fourth, cells adhere to extracellular matrices in order to survive but tumor cells can grow without the need of attachment and show resistance to anoikis¹⁹; fifth, activation of telomerase circumvents the telomere shortening and prevents the replicative senescence²¹; last but not least, skipping of DNA quality control following mitosis results in altered genetic content^15,16. In order to identify oncogenes or tumor suppressors that play a role in this deregulated proliferation, tumor growth experiments in mice are crucial.

Primary tumor growth is generally not the main reason of death. Migration of cancer cells from the primary site to a secondary site, termed metastasis, is the leading cause of death in most cancer patients²². Metastasis entails tumor cell invasion, intravasation, travelling through the circulation, avoiding immune attack, extravasation and growth at the secondary site. Epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a key process in metastasis and involves a switch in gene expression profiles yielding cells with higher motility and invasiveness, which are pre-requisites for the metastasizing cell¹². As the cancerous process is the resultant of a combination of various actions, including reciprocal interactions between cancer cells, stromal cells and pro- and anti-inflammatory cells, an in vitro approach to cancer often does not provide full insight into the cancerous process. Similarly, anticancer treatments impacting the tumor vasculature can often not be studied in vitro, thus the use of in vivo approaches is inevitable.

To study breast cancer progression, different experimental methods have been developed. The most widely used model is the subcutaneous injection of breast cancer cells into mice⁵. In this experimental setup, the investigator may introduce a wide range of alterations to a cell line of choice in vitro (i.e. upregulation, downregulation of proteins) and inject the cells under the skin. Although this method is straightforward and the injection process is simple without any need to perform surgery on the mice, the site at which the tumor is injected does not represent the local mammary tumor environment and the absence of this environment may result in breast cancer development that differs from that observed in human pathology. Secondly, genetically engineered mice are used frequently as an in vivo tool to study breast cancer progression. In this model, oncogene (i.e. PyMT, Neu) expression is driven by a mammary tissue specific promoter leading to the formation of spontaneous breast tumor s. This experimental setup is useful to study the treatment aspect of the disease by injecting drugs or antibodies while checking tumor size in time³. However, breeding these mice with other mouse strains deficient or mutated in a gene of interest might also give insights into the role of different proteins in breast tumor growth²⁴. The downside of this model is that it is prone to variation in tumor size and number. Moreover, the level of transgene expression depends on the integration site in the genome and can change from one mouse strain to another⁴. In this model, the expression of the transgene can be achieved by all the cells with epithelial origin whereas in human disease, only a subpopulation of cells express the oncogene or downregulate the tumor suppressor levels²⁶. To study metastasis, breast cancer cells may also be injected intravenously (a model termed experimental metastasis)²⁵. However, this approach only recapitulates the metastatic process partially; it circumvents the requirement for tumor cells to invade and intravasate, and starts from the point at which tumor cells are readily present in the circulation.

In our work, we use an orthotopic injection model to study the involvement of genes of interest in breast cancer progression¹³. We overexpress the protein in human breast cancer cells and inject them into the mammary fat pad of NOD/SCID gamma (NSG) mice. This method is advantageous in many ways: it allows very rapid and diverse genetic changes in the injected cell line, it covers the entire process of breast cancer progression from primary tumor growth to metastasis at pathologically relevant sites, and it also provides a good experimental model for studying the impact of therapeutic treatments at early or late stages of the disease. In addition, using this model one can investigate the role of stromal versus cancer cell-derived proteins in disease progression by using genetically modified mice or cells. Although subcutaneous injections are easier to perform, orthotopic models give rise to a more tumorigenic and more metastatic cancer cell population. Thus, results obtained by means of the subcutaneous injections might be either false-negative or false-positive^6,17 encouraging the use of orthotopic models to study the tumor growth.

Protokół

Animal experiments were approved by the animal welfare committee of the Leiden University Medical Center(LUMC). 1. Preparation of Cells, Instruments and Mice A day before operation, shave the NOD/SCID gamma (NSG) mice from the fourth nipple to the midline and weigh the mice to verify that all mice have roughly comparable weights. Autoclave a scissor, two tweezers and two straight mosquito forceps (Figure 1A) . On the day of operation, wash the human breast adenocarcinoma (MDA-MB-231) cells that will be injected once with phosphate buffered saline (PBS), pH 7.4 and trypsinize the cells. Quench the trypsin by adding 10 ml serum-containing DMEM media on top of the cells. Centrifuge the cells at 1,200 rpm for 7 min at RT to remove serum by resuspending the cells either in PBS or in media without serum. Centrifuge them again to remove traces of serum completely. Resuspend the cells in PBS or media. Count the cells with a hemocytometer and calculate the amount of cells. Use 500,000 cells/mouse in not more than 150 μl. Optional to PBS or media, resuspend the cells in matrigel. NOTE: Determine the amount of cells depending on the cell type used. Place cells in a sterile microcentrifuge tubes and keep them on ice. Fill one 50 ml conical centrifuge tube with 35 ml of PBS pH 7.4 and another 50ml conical centrifuge tube with 70% ethanol. Soak cotton swabs into each tube. 2. Orthotopic Injection Perform the surgery in a sterile hood to maintain a sterile atmosphere. Anesthetize the mouse by subcutaneously injecting Xylazin/Ketamine mix at a dose of 10mg/kg, 100 mg/kg body weight respectively. Fix the mouse on a heating pad. Confirm the success of anesthesia by the lack of reaction to toe pinch. NOTE: If one is not very familiar with surgical procedures, surgery may take longer. Arrange the anaesthesia dose accordingly. Apply ophthalmic ointment on the eyes of mice, to prevent the eyes from drying out. Clean the shaved area by using the cotton swab dipped into ethanol prepared in step 1.6. Alternating scrubs using betadine and alcohol three times in a circular fashion rotating away from the planned incision site should be performed. Alternatively, use ionophore as a disinfectant. Make a small incision between the fourth nipple and the midline with a scissor and make a pocket by inserting the cotton swab moistened with PBS pH 7.4. Use a tweezer to expose the mammary fat pad. Observe the fat pad by its white colour. Squeeze the fat pad with the other tweezer from its base; by doing this, fully expose the fat pad (Figure 1B) to perform injections easily. Homogenize the cell mixture by pipetting up and down. Gently aspirate 50 µl of cell suspension into an insulin syringe and inject into the mammary fat pad by holding the needle horizontally. Confirm successful injection by checking for swelling of the fat pad. Release the fat pad gently. Suture the incision by using a needle driver. Make three throws by turning the suture around the needle driver in clockwise, anti-clockwise and clockwise direction. Two knots per suture should be used. NOTE: Make sure the knots are tight otherwise mice can open up the sutures. After surgery, inject an analgesic, such as temgesic at 0.05-0.1 mg/kg bodyweight, subcutaneously in order to relieve the pain. Do not leave the animals unattended until they gain consciousness and maintain sternal recumbence. Place all the animals into different cages until they are fully recovered. To maintain sterility, use autoclaved cages and water. Change the cages every three days to keep the atmosphere clean. 3. Harvesting Organs for Analysis At the day of harvest, 8 weeks after the implantation of the cells, fill 15 ml conical centrifuge tubes with 3 ml Bouin’s solution for each mouse. In addition, use two 15 ml tubes filled with 5 ml formalin solution per mouse. Anesthetize the animals by injecting Xylazin/Ketamine, at a dose of 10 mg/kg 100 mg/kg body weight subcutaneously. Wait until the animal loses toe pinch withdrawal reflex. Fix the animal with needles on a base. Make a long, vertical midline incision with scissors. Make two horizontal incisions right below the front leg and above the rear leg. Expose the tumor by pinning the skin to the base. Measure the tumor volume by using a caliper. Dissociate the tumor from the skin using scissors. Snap freeze a part of the tumor in liquid nitrogen for RNA isolation. Place the other part, into the conical centrifuge tube filled with formalin to perform immunohistochemistry following paraffin embedding. Gently take out the lungs. Place the left lung into Bouin’s solution. Keep the lung in solution for 3 days. Observe superficial metastatic foci clearly to naked eye. Optionally, place the right lung into formalin to verify micrometastasis using haematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining. NOTE: Although, lung metastasis observed frequently in breast cancer, one might also want to collect bone, liver, brain and spleen to analyse metastasis. The cells at the metastatic area are denser and morphologically different and therefore can be distinguished easily from lung tissue. A day after harvest, aspirate the formalin solution from 15 ml tubes and replace with 70% ethanol. Embed the tissues in paraffin and perform immunohistochemistry studies. For blood analysis, open up the chest cavity with scissors. Withdraw 450 µl blood via cardiac puncture. Place blood sample in a microcentrifuge tube containing 50 µl of 3.2% sodium citrate. After blood is collected, spin it at 2,000 x g for 10 min. Store the plasma samples at -20 °C until further use. NOTE: There are several other blood collection techniques commonly used in practice20 and the technique that needs to be used depends on experimental setup and scientist’s choice. If blood sample is not required, euthanize the animal according to the animal protocol or as per the institution guidelines.

Representative Results

Successful application of the “orthotopic breast cancer model” is based on proper injection of cells into the mammary fat pad. Experimental errors such as imprecise inoculation of cells or leakage might lead to variations in tumor size or even the absence of a tumor which leads to the formation of a structure looking similar to a mammary fat pad injected with a control buffer (Figure 2A). The growth rate of the tumor is dependent on the nature of the injected cell line and in general, can be …

Discussion

Orthotopic injection of breast cancer cells is a powerful model to study all aspects of cancer growth. Implantation of these cells in the mammary fat pad of the mice should be carefully performed in order to prevent variation in tumor growth. Most importantly, injecting the same amount of cells to each mouse is crucial. To do so, one should trypsinize the cells rigorously without affecting viability of the cells. Non-viable cells should be disregarded during the cell counting and reagents (i.e. trypan blue) that…

Materials

Name of material/equipment	Company	Catalog number	Comments/Description
Bouin's solution	Sigma-Aldrich	HT10132	Used for investigating the metastasis on lungs
Formalin solution	Sigma-Aldrich	HT501128	Used to fix the tissues
Matrigel, growth factor reduced	Corning	356230	Cells can be resuspended in matrigel for injection
Mosquito forceps	Fine Science Tools	13008-12	Used for stiching
Angled forceps	Electron microscopy sciences	72991-4c	These make the exposure of mammary fat pad easier
Scissors	B Braun Medicals	BC056R	Used to cut open the mice
Straight forceps	B Braun Medicals	BD025R	This is used to open up the skin to expose mammary fat pad
NOD scid gamma mice	Charles River	005557	Experimental animal used for experiment
MDA-MB-231	Sigma-Aldrich	92020424	Experimental cells used for injections
Oculentum simplex	Teva Pharmachemie		Opthalmic ointment used to prevent drying out of eyes
Betadine	Fischer Scientific	19-898-859	Ionophore, used to disinfect the surgical area
Xylazin/Ketamine	Sigma-Aldrich	X1251, K2753	Use injected anesthesia as 10mg/kg and 100mg/kg body weight respectively
Temgesic	Schering-Plough		Use the painkiller as 0,05-0,1mg/kg body weight
DMEM	Life sciences	11995	For trypsin neutralization,use media with serum(FBS:media 1:10 volume); for injection, use media with no serum
Buffered sodium citrate	Aniara	A12-8480-10	Use the volume ratio as citrate:blood; 1:9