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Chapter 30

Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance

Water is the main component of body fluids necessary for homeostasis. It is distributed as the intracellular fluid or ICF and the extracellular fluid or …
Body fluid is mainly composed of water with dissolved electrolytes and non-electrolytes. Electrolytes, such as inorganic salts, acids, and bases are …
The fluid exchange between intracellular and extracellular compartments occurs due to hydrostatic and osmotic pressure exerted by fluids against …
Body hydration is a balance between water intake and output. An adult typically gains 2.5 L of water per day primarily through food and drink and …
The human kidneys usually excrete approximately 500 mL of water daily along with about 600 mmol of urinary solutes. Due to this obligatory water loss, …
Water is essential for normal body functions, but its excessive loss or gain may cause life-threatening conditions. Dehydration — the loss of water …
Sodium is the primary cation of extracellular fluid, making up to 90% of extracellular cations. Its concentration in blood plasma ranges from 135 – 145 …
Chloride and bicarbonate ions are important anions in the human body. Whereas chloride ion concentration in blood plasma is around 95 to 105 mEq/L, …
Calcium, the most abundant mineral in the body, is mainly stored in the skeleton and teeth, combining with phosphate to form mineral salts. Similarly, …
Sodium ion levels in the blood are regulated by four key hormones. The adrenal cortex releases aldosterone in response to low blood volume, low blood …
Maintaining the pH of body fluids is crucial, as changes in hydrogen ion concentration can disrupt membrane stability, alter protein structures, and …
Chemical buffers maintain stable fluid pH by absorbing hydrogen ions when pH drops and releasing them when pH rises. A typical buffer system in body …
Protein buffer systems rely on the ability of amino acids to respond to pH alterations. If the pH increases, the carboxyl group in an amino acid can …
The phosphate buffer system is vital in urine and intracellular fluid. It consists of sodium dihydrogen phosphate and sodium hydrogen phosphate. Since …
The carbonic acid–bicarbonate buffer system works on the principle of bicarbonate ions acting as a weak base and carbonic acid functioning as a weak …
The respiratory regulation of acid-base balance is a physiological process wherein the body adjusts its breathing rate in response to changes in the pH of …
Metabolic reactions within the body generate nonvolatile acids, such as sulfuric acid. The body tackles this large acid load by regulating the renal …
The normal pH range of systemic arterial blood is between 7.35 and 7.45. An arterial blood pH and bicarbonate concentration below 7.35 and 20 mEq/L …
The body has compensatory mechanisms to counter the changes in blood pH that cause acidosis  or alkalosis. Respiratory compensation responds to …
Assessing the pH, bicarbonate ion, and PCO2 levels in systemic arterial blood can identify acid-base imbalances. A change in PCO2 suggests, the problem is …
Conditions of the tumor microenvironment, such as hypoxia or nutrient starvation, play critical roles in cancer progression and malignancy. However, the …
Bone formation by osteoblasts is an essential process for proper bone acquisition and bone turnover to maintain skeletal homeostasis, and ultimately, …
Early detection and management of fluid overload are critically important in acute illness, as the impact of therapeutic intervention can result in …