Name: elbow injury checks and stability tests
Uploaded: 2023-04-30T06:46:04.000Z
Duration: 10 min 9 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

new-york-state-science-learning-standards

New York State Science Learning Standards

High School

Life Science

Structure and Function

HS-LS1-3.

Elbow Exam

1. التفتيش
<ol>
	<li>عند فحص الكوع ، قارن بالجانب غير المتورط أثناء البحث عن التورم والاحمرار والدفء وزاوية الحمل. </li>
	<li>في حالة وجود تورم ، حدد ما إذا كان في الجراب أو في المفصل. سيظهر تورم في مفصل الكوع من الأمام عند الحفرة العضدية. الموقع الأكثر شيوعا للتورم في الكوع هو الخلفي ، في الجراب الأولكرانون. </li>
	<li>لاحظ ما إذا كان الاحمرار أو الدفء موجودا. قد تشير هذه إلى التهاب الجراب الأولكرانون أو العدوى. </li>
	<li>قارن حجم المرفقين ، وتبحث عن الضمور. تذكر أنه من الشائع رؤية تضخم تكيفي للكوع المهيمن في القاذف. </li>
	<li>لاحظ زاوية الحمل التي تتكون من الذراع العلوي والسفلي في الوضع التشريحي. عادة ما تكون 5-10 درجات عند الذكور و 10-15 درجة عند الإناث. يمكن تغيير هذه الزاوية عن طريق كسر أو عدوى فوق اللقمة السابقة. </li>
</ol>
2. الجس 
الجس مفيد للغاية في تحديد مصدر ألم الكوع. من المفيد تحديد ألم الكوع بشكل عام إلى الأمام أو الخلفي أو الإنسي أو الجانبي. 
ملامسة الهياكل الهامة التالية في كل منطقة من هذه المجالات:
<ol>
	<li>الكوع الأمامي
	<ol>
		<li>وتر العضلة ذات الرأسين: جس الحبل المشدود في الجانب الإنسي للكوع الأمامي (من الأفضل الشعور به مع ثني الكوع إلى 90 درجة). </li>
		<li>الشريان العضدي: يشعر بالنبض الإنسي فقط إلى وتر العضلة ذات الرأسين. </li>
		<li>جس الألم على العصب المتوسط الموجود وسطيا للشريان العضدي. </li>
		<li>جس الحنان على كبسولة المفصل الأمامي. </li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>الكوع الخلفي
	<ol>
		<li>ثلاثية الرؤوس: جس على طول الجزء العلوي الخلفي من الذراع إلى طرف عملية olecranon. </li>
		<li>عملية Olecranon: ملامسة النتوء البارز في الكوع الخلفي. </li>
		<li>حفرة أوليكرانون: اشعر بالاكتئاب متفوق على عملية الأولكرانون. </li>
		<li>الجراب Olecranon: الجسس خلفيا إلى الزند القريب. لا يمكن الشعور بهذا إلا إذا كان ملتهبا ومنتفخا. </li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>الكوع الإنسي
	<ol>
		<li>اللقيمة الإنسية: ملامسة البروز العظمي في الكوع الإنسي. </li>
		<li>عضلات الرسغ المثنية وعضلات البروناتور: تحسس الأوتار في اللقيمة الإنسية. </li>
		<li>الرباط الجانبي الإنسي (MCL): جس من اللقيمة الإنسية إلى الأولكرانون. يقع MCL في عمق العضلات المثنية. </li>
		<li>العصب الزندي: جس من اللقيمة الإنسية إلى عملية olecranon فوق MCL للكوع. قد يسبب النقر على العصب أحاسيس غير مريحة عند الالتهاب (علامة تينيل). </li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>الكوع الجانبي
	<ol>
		<li>اللقيمة الجانبية: اشعر بالبروز العظمي على الكوع الجانبي. </li>
		<li>عضلات الباسطة والاستلقاء: ملامسة الأوتار المتصلة في اللقيمة الجانبية. </li>
		<li>الرأس الكعبري: يملس الكوع الجانبي ، ويفضل الشعور به أثناء الاستلقاء على الرسغ ونطقه. </li>
		<li>مفصل Radialcapitellar: جس قريب فقط من الرأس الكعبري. </li>
		<li>جس أربعة أصابع بعيدا عن اللقيمة الجانبية للحنان: يرتبط الألم في هذه المنطقة بضغط العصب الخلفي بين العظام. </li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
3. نطاق الحركة (ROM) 
يجب تقييم ROM في الكوع من خلال المقارنة بين الجانبين. يشير قلة الحركة إلى تصلب (بسبب الإصابة أو التهاب المفاصل) أو كتلة ميكانيكية داخل المفصل (بسبب الجسم المترهل). يظهر ROM العادي بين قوسين. تحقق من الاقتراحات التالية:
<ol>
	<li>التمديد (0 درجة): اطلب من المريض مد الكوع بحيث يكون الذراع مستقيما. ضع في اعتبارك أنه من الشائع رؤية تقلص انثناء طفيف في القاذف. </li>
	<li>الانثناء (150 درجة): اطلب من المريض ثني الكوع بمحاولة لمس اليد على الكتف. </li>
	<li>الكب (70 درجة): مع ثني مرفق المريض إلى 90 درجة وتوجيه الإبهام لأعلى ، اطلب من المريض أن يدير اليد بحيث تكون راحة اليد متجهة لأسفل نحو الأرض. </li>
	<li>الاستلقاء (90 درجة): مع ثني مرفق المريض إلى 90 درجة وتوجيه الإبهام لأعلى ، اطلب من المريض أن يدير اليد بحيث تكون راحة اليد متجهة لأعلى (كما لو كان يحاول إمساك الحساء في راحة اليد). </li>
</ol>
4. اختبار القوة 
يتم اختبار القوة عن طريق فحص الحركات المقاومة الموضحة أعلاه. عادة ما يكون الألم مع هذه الحركات المقاومة ناتجا عن التهاب الأوتار أو التهاب اللقيمة. يجب تقييم القوة في الحركات التالية:
<ol>
	<li>تعليق الساعد (انظر أعلاه): ستؤدي المقاومة إلى تفاقم التهاب اللقيمة الجانبي (تعلق الأوتار المستلقية في اللقيمة الجانبية). </li>
	<li>كب الساعد (انظر أعلاه): ستؤدي المقاومة إلى تفاقم التهاب اللقيمة الإنسي (تعلق الأوتار في اللقيمة الإنسية). </li>
	<li>تمديد المعصم: مع استقامة معصم المريض وتوجيه راحة اليد لأسفل ، حرك يد المريض في اتجاه تصاعدي. ستؤدي المقاومة إلى تفاقم ألم التهاب اللقيمة الجانبي (تعلق الباسطات المعصمية في اللقيمة الجانبية). </li>
	<li>ثني المعصم: مع استقامة معصم المريض وتوجيه راحة اليد لأسفل ، حرك يد المريض في اتجاه هبوطي. ستؤدي المقاومة إلى تفاقم ألم التهاب اللقيمة الإنسي (تعلق عضلات الرباط في اللقيمة الإنسية). </li>
	<li>مقاومة تمديد الإصبع الطويل: مع استقامة معصم المريض وتوجيه راحة اليد لأسفل ، حرك الإصبع الأوسط للمريض في اتجاه تصاعدي. ستؤدي المقاومة إلى تفاقم آلام التهاب اللقيمة الجانبي. </li>
	<li>ثني الكوع (انظر أعلاه): ستختبر المقاومة قوة العضلة ذات الرأسين ، ويشير الألم إلى التهاب الأوتار. </li>
	<li>تمديد الكوع (انظر أعلاه): ستختبر المقاومة قوة العضلة ثلاثية الرؤوس ، ويشير الألم إلى التهاب الأوتار. </li>
</ol>
5. اختبارات التمدد
ستؤدي هذه الاختبارات إلى تفاقم الألم الناجم عن التهاب اللقيمة الإنسي أو الجانبي عن طريق سحب اللقيمة في اللقيمة. 
<ol>
	<li>تمديد الرسغ إلى الانثناء أو الكب (الموصوف أعلاه) ؛ هذا يسحب اللقيمة الجانبية ويؤدي إلى تفاقم ألم التهاب اللقيمة الجانبي. </li>
	<li>تمديد الرسغ إلى التمديد أو الاستلقاء (الموصوف أعلاه) ؛ هذا يسحب اللقيمة الإنسية ويؤدي إلى تفاقم ألم التهاب اللقيمة الإنسي. </li>
</ol>
6. اختبار الأربطة الجانبية 
يجب تقييم الأربطة الجانبية للكوع بحثا عن الألم و / أو التراخي. يصاب الرباط الجانبي الإنسي بشكل أكثر شيوعا من الرباط الجانبي. 
يتم استخدام اختبارين لتقييم هذه الأربطة:
<ol>
	<li>إجهاد Varus / الأروح
	<ol>
		<li>قم بتدوير كتف المريض بشكل سلبي للخارج (دوران خارجي كامل) ، وثني الكوع إلى 30 درجة لفتح الأولكرانون من حفرة الأولكرانون. </li>
		<li>ضع راحة يد واحدة على المرفق الجانبي للمريض وادفعها وسطيا بيدك الأخرى (يتم تطبيق الإجهاد الأروح لتقييم الرباط الجانبي الإنسي). </li>
		<li>قم بإجراء اختبار إجهاد التقوس لتقييم الرباط الجانبي الجانبي عن طريق وضع راحة يدك على الكوع الإنسي للمريض والدفع في اتجاه جانبي. </li>
		<li>تحقق من الألم و / أو التراخي. </li>
		<li>تصنيف شدة إصابة الأربطة. 
		الدرجة الأولى (شد الأربطة): ألم بدون تراخي. 
		الدرجة الثانية (تمزق جزئي): ألم مع الحد الأدنى من التراخي. نقطة النهاية الناعمة. 
		الدرجة الثالثة (تمزق كامل): ألم بدون نقطة نهاية جيدة. </li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>مناورة الحلب: ثني الكوع المصاب إلى 90 درجة مع الاستلقاء الكامل مع تمديد الإبهام. الوصول إلى الذراع المعاكس تحت الكوع المصابة وقبض الإبهام. يؤدي السحب الجانبي للإبهام إلى إجهاد أروح في الرباط الجانبي الإنسي للكوع المصاب. </li>
</ol>

من الأفضل إجراء فحص الكوع باتباع نهج تدريجي مع المريض في وضع الجلوس. من المهم أن يخلع المريض ما يكفي من الملابس حتى يمكن رؤية تشريح السطح ومقارنته بالجانب غير المتورط. يجب أن يبدأ الفحص بالفحص ، والبحث عن عدم تناسق بين الكوع المتورط وغير المتورط. بعد ذلك ، يتم ملامسة الهياكل الرئيسية ، بحثا عن الحنان أو التورم أو التشوه.
يتبع ذلك تقييم ROM ، أولا بنشاط ثم ضد المقاومة لتقييم القوة. يشير الألم مع مقاومة الحركة إلى التهاب اللقيمة أو التهاب الأوتار ، بينما قد يشير الضعف إلى تمزق. يمكن تقييم ثبات ا...

فحص الكوع

المصدر: <a href="https://www.jove.com/author/Robert+E._Sallis"> روبرت إي ساليس </a> ، دكتوراه في الطب. Kaiser Permanente, Fontana, California, USA
الكوع عبارة عن مفصل مفصلي يتضمن مفصل 3 عظام: عظم العضد ونصف القطر والزند. إنه مفصل أكثر استقرارا من الكتف ، ولهذا السبب ، يكون للكوع نطاق حركة أقل. الكوع وهياكله عرضة لإصابات كبيرة ، خاصة مع الحركة المتكررة. التهاب اللقيمة الجانبي والإوسطي (ويسمى أيضا مرفق التنس ومرفق لاعب الجولف) هما تشخيصان شائعان وغالبا ما يحدثان نتيجة للأنشطة المهنية. 
عند فحص الكوع ، من المهم إزالة ملابس كافية بحيث يمكن فحص الكتف والكوع بالكامل. من المهم مقارنة الكوع المصاب بالجانب غير المتورط. يشمل التقييم المنهجي للكوع الفحص والجس واختبار نطاق الحركة (ROM) والاختبارات الخاصة ، بما في ذلك المناورات لتقييم استقرار الرباط واختبارات التمدد لإبراز الألم الناجم عن التهاب اللقيمة

Source: Robert E. Sallis, MD. Kaiser Permanente, Fontana, California, USA
The elbow is a hinged joint that involves the articulation of 3 bones: the ...

Education

JoVE Science Education

Clinical Skills

المهارات السريرية

Physical Examinations III

الفحوصات البدنية ٣

elbow injury checks and stability tests

The elbow is a hinge joint made by the humerus, radius, and ulna. It is more stable than the shoulder, so it has less range of motion. The elbow and nearby structures can still be injured, especially with repetitive motion.

Lateral epicondylitis and medial epicondylitis are two common elbow problems. Lateral epicondylitis is also called tennis elbow, and medial epicondylitis is also called golfer's elbow. These conditions often develop from occupational activities.

A full elbow exam starts with enough clothing removed to inspect the shoulder and elbow. The injured elbow should be compared with the uninjured side. The exam then includes inspection, palpation, range of motion testing, and special tests.

Special tests can check ligament stability and stretch the area to bring out pain from epicondylitis. This systematic approach helps evaluate elbow injury and pain in a clear, organized way.

Elbow Injury Checks and Stability Tests

cranial nerves exam i (i-vi)

Cranial Nerve Exam: Eye and Face Checks

Cranial nerve testing uses careful observation to check how the eyes, face, and related muscles are working. Some problems are easy to spot. A patient may report loss of smell or double vision, and facial nerve palsy can also be seen on exam. Other issues, such as sixth nerve palsy, may be subtle and need a careful neurological exam to find them. Cranial nerve problems can also appear when a person has changes in mental status. Some neurodegenerative disorders and brain lesions can affect...

cranial nerves exam ii (vii-xii)

Testing Cranial Nerves VII-XII

Cranial nerves VII-XII are tested as part of the neurological exam after the mental status evaluation. The examination begins with simple observations made during the first greeting. Facial weakness may already be visible, since the facial muscles are controlled by cranial nerve VII. Cranial nerve VII is the facial nerve. It also carries taste from the anterior two-thirds of the tongue and part of the external auditory canal. If facial weakness is paired with taste loss on the same side, that...

motor exam i

Motor Function Assessment Basics

Motor function assessment begins with careful observation. Abnormal motor findings can appear in many diseases, including movement disorders, myopathies, and strokes. The clinician first watches how the patient walks into the exam area. They also note walking without help, speed, and coordination while moving. Patient history gives another chance to look for signs such as tremors. It can also reveal other abnormal movements, including chorea and tardive dyskinesia. These early observations may...

motor exam ii

Neurological Reflexes, Coordination, and Gait

Neurological motor exams often include testing reflexes, coordination, and gait. These parts of the exam help localize neurologic problems and show how the nervous system is working. Reflex testing includes deep tendon reflexes and superficial reflexes. A deep tendon reflex, or DTR, begins when a stretch-sensitive receptor in a neuromuscular spindle is stimulated. That signal travels through a single synapse to a motor nerve and produces a muscle contraction. DTRs are often increased in...

sensory exam

Sensory Pathways and Nerve Mapping

A sensory exam checks pain, temperature, light touch, vibration, and joint position sense. It helps localize nerve and brain problems by showing which sensory pathways are affected. Sensation from the face is covered in Cranial Nerves Exam I and II, along with smell, vision, taste, and hearing. Pain and temperature signals travel in the spinothalamic tract. These fibers cross 1 to 2 spinal nerve segments above where they enter, then move through the brainstem to the thalamus. From there, the...

neck exam

Cervical Spine and Neck Injury

The neck contains the cervical spine, a group of seven vertebrae arranged in a gentle C-shaped curve. These bones, joints, and ligaments make the neck complex to examine. The cervical spine supports the head and helps protect the nerves that come from the brain and spinal cord. Each vertebra has a thick bony body at the front. Intervertebral discs connect the bodies above and below, and they add stability and shock absorption. The back part of each vertebra includes the laminae, transverse and...

shoulder exam i

Shoulder Exam: Joint Structure and Motion

Shoulder exam starts with understanding the joints and muscles that control shoulder movement. The shoulder is made up of four separate joints: the glenohumeral (GH) joint, the acromioclavicular (AC) joint, the sternoclavicular joint, and the scapulothoracic joint. The GH joint is the main joint for shoulder motion. It is also the most mobile joint in the body. Because it is shaped like a golf ball sitting on a tee, it can be prone to instability. The GH joint is held in place by the four...

shoulder exam ii

Shoulder Strength and Instability Tests

The shoulder exam continues with strength testing of the rotator cuff muscles and the biceps tendons. These tests help assess common sources of shoulder pain and guide the next steps in the exam. The rotator cuff includes the supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor, and subscapularis muscles. These muscles act as compressors that hold the humeral head in place against the glenoid. Injury and wear of the rotator cuff tendons are among the most common causes of shoulder pain. Strength is...

elbow exam

The elbow is a hinge joint made by the humerus, radius, and ulna. It is more stable than the shoulder, so it has less range of motion. The elbow and nearby structures can still be injured, especially with repetitive motion. Lateral epicondylitis and medial epicondylitis are two common elbow problems. Lateral epicondylitis is also called tennis elbow, and medial epicondylitis is also called golfer's elbow. These conditions often develop from occupational activities. A full elbow exam starts...

wrist and hand examination

Wrist and Hand Injury Exam

The wrist and hand injury exam checks bones, joints, tendons, nerves, and blood flow. The wrist is a complex joint made of 8 carpal bones and many ligaments. The hand has 5 metacarpal bones, and the fingers have 14 phalanges. Tendons and muscles lie over these bones and help move the hand and fingers. Wrist and hand problems can follow impact, weight-bearing activities such as gymnastics, or twisting and throwing motions. The exam starts with inspection. The examiner then looks for tenderness...

lower back exam

Lower Back Pain Evaluation

The lower back exam checks for pain, injury, and changes in the spine and nearby tissues. Back pain is a common source of pain in the body. Because the lower back includes bones, discs, ligaments, nerves, and muscles, each of these structures can contribute to symptoms. The exam starts with inspection and palpation. Inspection means looking for signs of deformity or inflammation. Palpation means feeling the area with the hands to check for tenderness or swelling. The exam also includes range...

hip exam

Assessing Hip Pain and Movement

The hip is a ball-and-socket joint made by the femoral head fitting into the acetabulum. The hip ligaments help make it a very strong and stable joint. Even so, the hip still has a wide range of motion and can wear down over time or after injury. Hip pain can affect people of many ages. It may be linked to problems inside the joint or outside the joint. The location of pain in the hip region can give early clues about the cause. A hip exam looks for asymmetry, swelling, and changes in gait,...

knee exam

Knee Injury Assessment

Knee injury assessment focuses on the largest joint in the body, where the femur meets the tibia. Because the knee sits in the middle of the lower leg, it faces traumatic and degenerative forces. Its structure also makes the exam more detailed. The joint is inherently unstable and relies on ligaments and menisci for support. The menisci act as shock absorbers and help increase the contact area of the joint. The patella sits in front of the knee and acts as a fulcrum for forceful extension.

ankle exam

How to Assess an Injured Ankle

The ankle exam helps assess an injured ankle by checking the joint, the ligaments, and the surrounding foot. The ankle and foot form the base for body support and upright movement. Because this area bears weight, ankle injuries are common in athletes and in the general population. Ankle injuries can happen after sudden trauma or from repeated overuse, such as running. The ankle is a fairly simple joint. It includes the distal tibia, the talus, and the fibula on the lateral side. Its main...

foot exam

Assessing Foot Pain and Injury

Foot pain and injury can be evaluated by checking the foot carefully from side to side. The foot is a complex structure made of many bones and joints. It gives the body flexibility, serves as the main point of contact for walking, and helps absorb shock. Because the foot supports the weight of the whole body, it is often prone to pain and injury. A full exam starts by removing shoes and socks on both feet. This lets the examiner inspect the entire foot and compare the painful or injured side...

physical examinations iii

This collection covers physical examination of two major systems in our body: neurological and musculoskeletal, with videos explaining relevant anatomy, the rationale behind the steps, and the interpretation of the exam findings.

Explore how the elbow is examined, from comparing both sides to testing motion, ligament stability, and pain from tennis elbow or golfer's elbow.

Elbow Injury Checks and Stability Tests | JoVE K12

Robert E. Sallis

Kaiser Permanente

Overview

Inspection and Palpation

Range of Motion Testing

Strength Testing

Special Tests

Summary

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Background
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The Nucleus

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The Central Dogma

The DNA Helix

Nucleic Acids

DNA as a Genetic Template

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Chromosome Structure

Base-pairing and DNA Repair

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RNA Structure

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Translation

Translation is the process of synthesizing proteins from the genetic information carried by messenger RNA (mRNA). Following transcription, it constitutes ...

Ribosomes

Ribosomes translate genetic information encoded by messenger RNA (mRNA) into proteins. Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have ribosomes. Cells that ...

Protein and Protein Structures

Proteins: From Genes to Degradation

From DNA to Protein

The flow of genetic information in cells from DNA to mRNA to protein is described by the central dogma, which states that genes specify the sequence of ...

Protein Folding

Proteins are chains of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. Upon synthesis, a protein folds into a three-dimensional conformation, critical to ...

An Overview of Gene Expression

Gene expression is the complex process where a cell uses its genetic information to make functional products. This process is regulated at multiple ...

an-introduction-to-caenorhabditis-elegans

An Introduction to Caenorhabditis elegans

Caenorhabditis elegans is a microscopic, soil-dwelling roundworm that has been powerfully used as a model organism since the early 1970&rsquo;s.  It was ...

An Overview of Genetic Analysis

An organism&#8217;s physical traits, or phenotype, are a product of its genotype, which is the combination of alleles (gene variants) inherited from its ...

An Introduction to Cell Death

Necrosis, apoptosis, and autophagic cell death are all manners in which cells can die, and these mechanisms can be induced by different stimuli, such as ...

An Overview of Genetic Engineering

Genetic engineering &#8211; the process of purposefully altering an organism&#8217;s DNA &#8211; has been used to create powerful research tools and model ...

An Introduction to Cell Division

Cell division is the process by which a parent cell divides and gives rise to two or more daughter cells. It is a means of reproduction for single-cell ...

An Overview of Genetics and Disease

Many human diseases are associated with mutations or variations in genetic sequences. Some of these genetic variants are heritable, passed down from ...

an-introduction-to-cellular-and-molecular-neuroscience

An Introduction to Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience

Cellular and molecular neuroscience is one of the newest and fastest growing subdisciplines in neuroscience. By investigating the influences of genes, ...

Annexin V and Propidium Iodide Labeling

Staining with annexin V and propidium iodide (PI) provides researchers with a way to identify different types of cell death&#8212;either necrosis or ...

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An Introduction to Developmental Genetics

Development is the complex process through which a single-celled embryo transforms into a multicellular organism. Developmental processes are guided by ...

Bacterial Transformation: Electroporation

The term &#x201C;transformation&#x201D; refers cellular ingestion of foreign DNA.  In nature, transformation can occur in certain types of bacteria.  In ...

an-introduction-to-molecular-developmental-biology

An Introduction to Molecular Developmental Biology

Molecular signals play a major role in the complex processes occurring during embryonic development. These signals regulate activities such as cell ...

bacterial-transformation-the-heat-shock-method

Bacterial Transformation: The Heat Shock Method

Transformation is the process that occurs when a cell ingests foreign DNA from its surroundings. Transformation can occur in nature in certain types of ...

an-introduction-to-saccharomyces-cerevisiae

An Introduction to Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Saccharomyces cerevisiae (commonly known as baker&rsquo;s yeast) is a single-celled eukaryote that is frequently used in scientific research.  S. ...

Cell Cycle Analysis

Cell cycle refers to the set of events through which a cell grows, replicates its genome, and ultimately divides into two daughter cells through the ...

An Introduction to Transfection

Transfection is the process of inserting genetic material, such as DNA and double stranded RNA, into mammalian cells. The insertion of DNA into a cell ...

Chromatin Immunoprecipitation

Histones are proteins that help organize DNA in eukaryotic nuclei by serving as &#8220;scaffolds&#8221; around which DNA can be wrapped, forming a complex ...

An Overview of Epigenetics

Since the early days of genetics research, scientists have noted certain heritable phenotypic differences that are not due to differences in the ...

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Community DNA Extraction from Bacterial Colonies

Source: Laboratories of Dr. Ian Pepper and Dr. Charles Gerba - The University of Arizona
Demonstrating Author: Luisa Ikner
Traditional methods of analysis ...

Cytogenetics

Cytogenetics is the field of study devoted to chromosomes, and involves the direct observation of a cell&#8217;s chromosomal number and structure, ...

embryonic-stem-cell-culture-and-differentiation

Embryonic Stem Cell Culture and Differentiation

Culturing embryonic stem (ES) cells requires conditions that maintain these cells in an undifferentiated state to preserve their capacity for self-renewal ...

DNA Gel Electrophoresis

DNA gel electrophoresis is a technique used for the detection and separation of DNA molecules. An electric field is applied to a gel matrix comprised of ...

Enzyme Assays and Kinetics

Enzyme kinetics describes the catalytic effects of enzymes, which are biomolecules that facilitate chemical reactions necessary for living organisms. ...

DNA Ligation Reactions

In molecular biology, ligation refers to the joining of two DNA fragments through the formation of a phosphodiester bond.  An enzyme known as a ligase ...

explant-culture-for-developmental-studies

Explant Culture for Developmental Studies

Explant culture is a technique in which living cells or tissues are removed from an embryo for continued development outside of the organism. This ex vivo ...

DNA Methylation Analysis

Methylation at CpG dinucleotides is a chemical modification of DNA hypothesized to play important roles in regulating gene expression. In particular, the ...

Expression Profiling with Microarrays

Microarrays are important tools for profiling gene expression, and are based on complementary binding between probes that are attached to glass chips and ...

Density Gradient Ultracentrifugation

Density gradient ultracentrifugation is a common technique used to isolate and purify biomolecules and cell structures. This technique exploits the fact ...

F&#246;rster Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET)

F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET) is a phenomenon used to investigate close-range biochemical interactions. In FRET, a donor photoluminescent ...

detecting-environmental-microorganisms-with-polymerase-chain-reaction

Detecting Environmental Microorganisms with the Polymerase Chain Reaction and Gel Electrophoresis

Source: Laboratories of Dr. Ian Pepper and Dr. Charles Gerba - Arizona University
Demonstrating Author: Bradley Schmitz
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is ...

Gel Purification

Gel purification is used to recover DNA fragments after electrophoretic separation. DNA recovery from an agarose gel includes three basic steps: binding, ...

Detecting Reactive Oxygen Species

Reactive oxygen species are chemically active, oxygen-derived molecules capable of oxidizing other molecules. Because of their reactive nature, there are ...

Gene Silencing with Morpholinos

Morpholino-mediated gene silencing is a common technique used to study roles of specific genes during development. Morpholinos inhibit gene expression by ...

development-and-reproduction-of-the-laboratory-mouse

Development and Reproduction of the Laboratory Mouse

Successful breeding of the laboratory mouse (Mus musculus) is critical to the establishment and maintenance of a productive animal colony. Additionally, ...

Genetic Crosses

To dissect genetic processes or create organisms with novel suites of traits, scientists can perform genetic crosses, or the purposeful mating of two ...

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Drosophila melanogaster Embryo and Larva Harvesting and Preparation

Drosophila melanogaster embryos and larvae are easy to manipulate and develop rapidly by mechanisms that are analogous to other organisms, including ...

Construct an explanation based on evidence for how the structure of DNA determines the structure of proteins which carry out the essential functions of life through systems of specialized cells.

HS-LS1-1.

Elbow Injury Checks and Stability Tests

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