Name: human skeleton: bones, cells, and disease
Uploaded: 2019-03-11T09:21:29.000Z
Duration: 1 min 2 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Next Generation Science Standards

High School

Life Science

from-molecules-to-organisms-structures-and-processes

From Molecules to Organisms: Structures and Processes

HS-LS1-2

What is the Skeletal System?

يتكون الهيكل العظمي البشري من العظام التي لا تلتحم فحسب لتوفير إطار جامد،بل لإعطاء شكل للجسم،لكنها تسمح أيضاًبالحركة،بكونها ملتصقة بالعضلات عبر الأوتار. أحد الأقسام الرئيسية،الهيكل العظمي المحوري،يتركز حول المحور المركزي للجسم. في حين يوجد عدد من العظام في هذا القسم من الجزء الأعلى من الجسم،بما في ذلك عظام الأذن الوسطى،فمعظمها تحمي الأعضاء الحيوية من التلف.على سبيل المثال،تحيط الجمجمة الدماغ،ويمتد العمود الفقري حول الحبل الشوكي،حامياًالجهاز العصبي المركزي. أعضاء أخرى،مثل القلب والرئتين،محمية من قبل عظم الصدر والقفص الصدري. يتكون التقسيم الأخير،الهيكل العظمي الزائدي،من عظام يدعم ويحرك الزوائد،اليدين والذراع،وأيضاًالقدمين والساقين،وحلقات صدرية وحوضية.

كلينج ، جوليانا م. ، بارت إل كلارك ، ونيكول ب. ساندو. "الوقاية من هشاشة العظام وفحصها وعلاجها: مراجعة". مجلة صحة المرأة 23 ، العدد 7 (1 يوليو 2014): 563-72. [<a href = "https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2013.4611" target = "__blank" >المصدر</a>]

عكاوي وإبراهيم وحسن زميرلي. "هشاشة العظام: المفاهيم الحالية". المفاصل 6 ، العدد 2 (14 يونيو 2018): 122-27. [<a href = "https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0038-1660790" target = "__blank" >المصدر</a>]

ما هو نظام الهيكل العظمي؟

<h4>نظره عامه</h4>

يتكون الهيكل العظمي البشري البالغ من ٢٠٦ عظمة متصلة من خلال الغضاريف والأوتار والأربطة. يوفر الهيكل العظمي إطاراً صلباً لجسم الإنسان ، ويحمي الأعضاء الداخلية ، ويتيح الحركة والتحرك. يتكون نظام الهيكل العظمي البشري من هيكل عظمي محوري وهيكل عظمي طرفي. تتكوّن أنسجة العظام باستمرار وتُمضغ بواسطة خلايا عظام متخصصة ضرورية للصحة العامة. تؤدي خلايا العظام غير المنتظمة والمستويات غير الصحيحة من المركبات الكيميائية في الدم إلى أمراض العظام.

<h4>الهيكل العظمي المحوري</h4>

يتكون الهيكل العظمي المحوري من ٨٠ عظمة وينقسم إلى ثلاث مناطق: الجمجمة والعمود الفقري والقفص الصدري. الجزء العلوي من الجمجمة _ القحف _ يتكون من ثمانية عظام تحيط بالمخ ، بينما يتكون الجزء السفلي من ١٤ عظمة. يتكون العمود الفقري من ٣٣ فقرة: سبع فقرات عنقية ، و ١٢ فقرة صدرية ، و ٥ فقرات قطنية ، و ٥ فقرات عجزية مدمجة ، و ٤ فقرات عصعصية مدمجة.

يضيف القفص الصدري الاستقرار للعمود الفقري ويحمي أيضاً الرئتين والقلب. يتكون من ١٢ زوجاً من الضلوع ، والتي ترتبط بالفقرة الصدرية عبر المفصل الضلعي. الجزء الأمامي من القفص الصدري يعلق على القص _ العظم المسطح في وسط مقدمة الصدر _ عبر الغضاريف الضلعية. تُعرف الأضلاع السبعة الأولى على كل جانب بالأضلاع الحقيقية ، حيث ترتبط غضاريفها مباشرة بالقص. تسمى الأضلاع من ثمانية إلى ١٢ ضلوعاً كاذبة لأنها لا ترتبط مباشرة بالقص. ومع ذلك ، فإن الأضلاع من ٨ إلى ١٠ تنضم إلى القص عبر الغضاريف الضلعية للأضلاع أعلاه. على النقيض من ذلك ، يشار إلى الضلعين ١١ و ١٢ على أنهما أضلاع عائمة حيث أنهما متصلان فقط بالعمود الفقري في الظهر ولكن ليس لهما صلة بالقص على الإطلاق.

<h4>الهيكل العظمي الطرفي</h4>

يتكون نظام الهيكل العظمي الطرفي من ١٢٦ عظمة من الأطراف والمشدات حيث يتم إلحاقها بالهيكل العظمي المحوري. يتكون نظام الهيكل العظمي الطرفي من عدة أنواع مختلفة من العظام.

<h4>الأنسجة و الخلايا العظمية</h4>

يُعرف العظم باسم النسيج العظمي. تنتشر خلايا الأنسجة العظمية في المطرس _ المادة التي توفر القوة والصلابة للعظام. يتكون المطرس من مكونات عضوية _ بشكل رئيسي الكولاجين _ ومكونات غير عضوية تتكون من أملاح معدنية متبلورة مثل فوسفات الكالسيوم وهيدروكسيد الكالسيوم وفلوريد المغنيسيوم.

هناك ثلاثة أنواع رئيسية من خلايا العظام _ بانيات العظم ، ناقضات العظم ، والخلايا العظمية. بانيات العظم وناقضات العظم لها وظائف معاكسة. تقوم بانيات العظم ببناء مطرس العظام ، بينما تمضغها ناقضات العظم. تستمر كلتا الوظيفتين طوال الحياة ، وكلاهما ضروري لصحة جيدة. بناء العظام مهم للحفاظ على قوة العظام. يسمح مضغ العظام بالحفاظ على مستويات الكالسيوم في مجرى الدم (وهو أمر حيوي لصحة الأعضاء الأخرى ، مثل القلب).

الخلايا العظمية هي خلايا نضجت من بانيات العظم وهي الآن محاطة بمطرس. تتواصل الخلايا العظمية مع الدم من خلال القنوات المجهرية في العظام ، وتستشعر مستويات الكالسيوم والمعادن الأخرى في الدم. ثم يتحكمون في وظائف بانيات العظم وناقضات العظم عن طريق إفراز المواد التي تؤثر على نشاط هذه الخلايا.

<h4>أمراض العظام</h4>

العديد من أمراض الهيكل العظمي لها سمة مشتركة: ضعف العظام بسبب قلة المحتوى المعدني. هشاشة العظام ، على سبيل المثال ، تتميز بانخفاض كثافة المعادن في العظام. يحدث بشكل شائع عند النساء بعد سن اليأس ولكن يمكن أن يحدث أيضاً عند الرجال والنساء في فترة ما قبل انقطاع الطمث. في هذا المرض ، يوجد عدد أكبر من ناقضات العظم أكثر من نشاط بانيات العظم. المرضى الذين يعانون من هشاشة العظام لديهم زيادة كبيرة في خطر الإصابة بالكسور ، وخاصة العمود الفقري والورك والمعصم.

يعد الحثل العظمي الكلوي مرض عظمي منتشر على نطاق واسع. هذا المرض جزء من حالة أكبر تُعرف باسم اضطراب المعادن والعظام في أمراض الكلى المزمنة. تؤدي الكلى العديد من الوظائف ، بما في ذلك تنظيم الكالسيوم والفوسفور وفيتامين د ، وكلها ضرورية لصحة العظام. عندما لا تعمل الكلى بشكل صحيح ، كما هو الحال في مرض الكلى السكري ، قد تضعف العظام وتتألم ، وقد تصبح المفاصل مؤلمة أيضاً.

نظره عامه

يتكون الهيكل العظمي البشري البالغ من 206 عظمة متصلة من خلال الغضاريف والأوتار والأربطة. يوفر الهيكل العظمي ...

Education

JoVE Core

Biology

علم الأحياء

Human Biology

بيولوجيا الإنسان

Musculoskeletal System

الجهاز العضلي الهيكلي

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

المصطلحات والمفاهيم الأساسية

human skeleton: bones, cells, and disease

The human skeleton is a living framework made of 206 bones in adults. Bones connect with cartilage, tendons, and ligaments. This system gives the body support, protects organs, and helps with movement and locomotion.

The skeleton has two main parts: the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton has 80 bones and includes the skull, the vertebral column, and the rib cage. The cranium, or upper skull, has eight bones that enclose the brain, while the lower part of the skull has 14 bones. The vertebral column has 33 vertebrae. These include seven cervical, 12 thoracic, five lumbar, five fused sacral, and four fused coccygeal vertebrae.

The rib cage adds stability to the vertebral column and protects the lungs and heart. It has 12 pairs of ribs that attach to the thoracic vertebrae at the costovertebral joint. The front of the rib cage connects to the sternum, the flat bone in the center of the chest, through costal cartilages. The first seven ribs are true ribs because their cartilages attach directly to the sternum. Ribs eight through 12 are false ribs. Ribs eight through 10 connect to the sternum through the cartilages of the ribs above them, while ribs 11 and 12 are floating ribs because they do not connect to the sternum at all.

The appendicular skeleton has 126 bones. It includes the bones of the limbs and the girdles that attach them to the axial skeleton. Bone tissue is also called osseous tissue. Its cells sit in a matrix, which is the material that gives bone strength and hardness. The matrix contains organic material, mainly collagen, and inorganic mineral salts such as calcium phosphate, calcium hydroxide, and magnesium fluoride.

Bone cells have different jobs. Osteoblasts build bone matrix, while osteoclasts break it down. Both actions continue throughout life and are important for health. Building bone helps keep bones strong. Breaking down bone helps maintain calcium levels in the bloodstream, which is important for organs such as the heart. Osteocytes are mature bone cells that come from osteoblasts. They sit inside the matrix and communicate with the blood through tiny channels in bone. They sense calcium and other mineral levels and help control osteoblast and osteoclast activity by releasing substances that affect these cells.

Problems in bone cell balance or mineral levels can lead to bone disease. Osteoporosis is a common example. It is marked by low bone mineral density and more osteoclast activity than osteoblast activity. It occurs most often in postmenopausal women, but it can also occur in men and premenopausal women. People with osteoporosis have a much higher risk of fractures, especially in the spine, hip, and wrist.

Renal osteodystrophy is another widespread bone disease. It is part of mineral and bone disorder in chronic kidney disease. The kidneys help regulate calcium, phosphorus, and vitamin D, and these are all needed for bone health. When the kidneys do not work properly, such as in diabetic kidney disease, bones may become weak and painful, and the joints may hurt as well.

Human Skeleton: Bones, Cells, and Disease

what is the skeletal system?

The human skeleton is a living framework made of 206 bones in adults. Bones connect with cartilage, tendons, and ligaments. This system gives the body support, protects organs, and helps with movement and locomotion. The skeleton has two main parts: the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton has 80 bones and includes the skull, the vertebral column, and the rib cage. The cranium, or upper skull, has eight bones that enclose the brain, while the lower part of the skull...

bone structure

Inside a Long Bone

Inside a long bone, osseous tissue is organized into two main types: cortical bone and cancellous bone. A femur is a clear example of this structure. The bone also includes outer coverings and inner spaces that support growth, repair, and blood cell production. Cortical bone, also called compact bone, forms the dense outer layer along the diaphysis, or shaft. It is covered by the periosteum, a membrane with connective tissue, capillaries, and nerves. Beneath the cortical layer is the medullary...

joints

Types of Joints in the Human Body

Joints are the places where adjacent bones connect. They are also called articulations or articular surfaces. Joints help the body move and stay stable. Joints can be classified by structure or by function. Structural classification depends on the material that forms the joint and whether there is a space between the bones. By structure, joints are fibrous, cartilaginous, or synovial. Fibrous joints are connected by fibrous tissue and have no cavity between the bones. Because of this, they do...

bone remodeling

How Hormones Control Bone Turnover

Bone turnover is a continuous process in which old bone is broken down and new bone is built. Osteoclasts carry out bone resorption, and osteoblasts carry out bone formation. In adults, this balanced cycle helps maintain bone mass and calcium homeostasis. Mechanical stress can also stimulate turnover as part of normal maintenance and repair. Parathyroid hormone, or PTH, helps control blood calcium levels by increasing bone resorption when calcium is low. It is released from the parathyroid...

skeletal muscle anatomy

Muscle Fibers, Tendons, and Contraction

Skeletal muscle moves the body by pulling on bones through tendons. Tendons are the connective tissue that attaches skeletal muscle to bones. When skeletal muscles contract, they create voluntary movement. Skeletal muscle is wrapped in layers of connective tissue. The outer layer is the epimysium, which helps protect the muscle. Beneath it, the perimysium surrounds and groups fasciculi, which are bundles of skeletal muscle cells called myocytes. These cells are also called skeletal muscle...

classification of skeletal muscle fibers

Skeletal Muscle Fiber Speed and Energy

Skeletal muscle fibers can be grouped by how fast they contract and how they make ATP, the energy cells use for movement. These differences also shape their physical features. Most human muscles contain all three fiber types, but in different amounts. Slow oxidative fibers, also called slow-twitch fibers, appear red because they have many capillaries and high levels of myoglobin, an oxygen-storing protein. They also contain more mitochondria, which make ATP through oxidative phosphorylation,...

muscle contraction

Nerve Signals That Trigger Muscle Contraction

Nerve signals trigger muscle contraction in both skeletal and smooth muscle, but the two muscle types use different control systems. In skeletal muscle, the signal begins at the motor end plate, which is the synapse between a motor neuron and a muscle fiber. In smooth muscle, contraction is controlled by the autonomic nervous system and happens without conscious control. In skeletal muscle, motor nerve terminals release acetylcholine. This neurotransmitter binds to receptors on the sarcolemma,...

cross-bridge cycle

Calcium Control in Muscle Contraction

Calcium control in muscle contraction depends on ATP, motor neurons, and the sliding action of actin and myosin. As a muscle contracts, the thin and thick filaments overlap more, and the sarcomere, which is the contractile unit of the muscle, becomes shorter. This process uses energy from ATP and happens in a repeating cycle at the molecular level. Myosin drives the movement of actin through a cross-bridge cycle. When ATP attached to the myosin head is hydrolyzed to ADP, myosin shifts into a...

motor units

How Motor Units Control Muscle Movement

Motor units control skeletal muscle movement. A motor unit includes one efferent motor neuron, which carries signals away from the central nervous system, and all of the muscle fibers it innervates. A single motor neuron can connect with multiple muscle fibers, but each muscle fiber is innervated by only one motor neuron. Lower motor neurons are the efferent neurons that control skeletal muscle, the most abundant type of muscle in the body. Their cell bodies are found in the spinal cord or...

the spinal cord

Spinal Cord Structure and Dermatomes

The spinal cord is the main nerve pathway of the central nervous system. It carries sensory signals from the body to the brain and motor signals from the brain to the body. It begins at the foramen magnum, the opening at the base of the skull, and extends to the level of the first or second lumbar vertebra. In cross-section, the spinal cord is cylindrical and contains both gray matter and white matter. The central canal lies in the middle and is a remnant of the lumen of the primitive neural...

nociception

Pain Signaling and Inflammation

Pain signaling begins when the body detects a harmful stimulus. Sharp objects, open flames, and corrosive chemicals can trigger this response. Sensory receptors called nociceptors, which sit on nerve endings, detect these noxious stimuli and use ion channels to turn them into electrical signals. Those electrical signals travel through sensory neurons to the brain, where they are experienced as pain. This warning system helps an organism avoid damage and stay safe. Pain is therefore an...

key terms and concepts

Explore the human skeleton, including axial and appendicular bones, bone cells, and common bone diseases like osteoporosis and renal osteodystrophy.

Human Skeleton: Bones, Cells, and Disease | JoVE K12

JoVE Core series brings biology to life through over 300 concise and easy-to-understand animated video lessons that explain key concepts in biology, plus more than 150 scientist-in-action videos that show actual research experiments conducted in today’s laboratories.

biology

new-york-state-science-learning-standards

New York State Science Learning Standards

Structure and Function

HS-LS1-2.

myJoVE Corporation

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Background
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Protein Networks

Construct an explanation based on evidence for how the structure of DNA determines the structure of proteins, which carry out the essential functions of life through systems of specialized cells. [Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include identification of specific cell or tissue types, whole body systems, specific protein structures and functions, or the biochemistry of protein synthesis.]

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Carbohydrate Digestion

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Overview

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The Parasympathetic Nervous System

Overview

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The Sympathetic Nervous System

Overview

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Oogenesis

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Fertilization

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Overview

The adult human skeleton comprises 206 bones that are connected through cartilage, tendons, and ligaments. The skeleton provides a rigid ...

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An Introduction to the Zebrafish: Danio rerio

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Homeostasis
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Anatomy of the Circulatory System

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Anatomy of the Heart

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Blood Flow

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Blood Withdrawal I

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Blood Withdrawal II

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Overview

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Bone Remodeling

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Spermatogenesis

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Breathing

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What is Homeostasis?

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Negative and Positive Feedback

Homeostatic Imbalance

Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment within the body, which is crucial for the proper functioning of cells, tissues, organs, ...

Plan and conduct an investigation to provide evidence that feedback mechanisms maintain homeostasis. [Clarification Statement: Examples of investigations could include heart rate response to exercise, stomate response to moisture and temperature, and root development in response to water levels.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include the cellular processes involved in the feedback mechanism.]

HS-LS1-3

Human Skeleton: Bones, Cells, and Disease

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