Name: how neurons signal at synapses
Uploaded: 2019-08-01T08:26:57.000Z
Duration: 2 min 47 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Alabama Course of Study Science

9-12

Human Anatomy and Physiology

from-molecules-to-organisms-structures-and-processes

From Molecules to Organisms: Structures and Processes

9-12.HA.1.5.c

The Synapse

تتلقى خلايا جهازك العصبي باستمرار معلومات وتنقلها،بدائية من الوظائف الجسدية الأساسية إلى التحفيز الحسي. تتواصل الخلايا العصبية بإشارات كهربائية تسمى بجهود الفعل. تنشأ جهود الفعل هذه في جسم الخلية وتنتقل عبر المحور إلى محطة المحور حيث تنتقل إلى الخلية التالية.وتسمى النقطة التي تلتقي فيها عصبونتان بالمشابك. تتيح المشابك الكهربائية الاتصال المباشر بين الخلايا باستخدام الوصلات الفاصلة،وغالبًا ما تشارك في تنسيق النشاط السريع. ومع ذلك فإن معظم نقاط الاشتباك عبارة عن نقاط ربط كيميائي تحتوي على شق متشابك،وهي المساحة الفيزيائية الموجودة بين الخلايا العصبية التي ترسل الإشارة،والمعروفة باسم الخلية قبل المشبكية،والخلية العصبية التي تستقبلها،المعروفة بالخلية بعد المشبكية.لا يمكن أن تنتقل جهود الفعل عبر الشق المتشابك،لذلك تقوم العصبونات بتحويل الإشارة الكهربائية إلى إشارة كيميائية عند المشبك. ويتم ذلك عن طريق إطلاق جزيئات تعرف باسم الناقلات العصبية. هناك العديد من الناقلات العصبية،ولكل منها تأثيرات مختلفة على الخلايا العصبية بعد المشبكية،بما في ذلك غلوتامات الإثارة و GABA المثبطة وغيرهم.عندما تصل جهود الفعل إلى محطة ما قبل المشبك،تفتح قنوات الكالسيوم ذات الجهد الكهربائي على الغشاء قبل المشبكي. يندفع الكالسيوم إلى الخلية،مما يؤدي إلى اندماج الحويصلات مع الغشاء وإطلاق نواقل عصبية في الشق التشابكي. ثم تكون قادرة على الإلتصاق بالمستقبلات على الخلية بعد المشبكية.قد يؤدي ربط الناقلات العصبية إلى المستقبلات إلى زيادة أو نقصان جهد الغشاء بعد المشبكي،مما يؤدي إلى تغيير احتمالية بدء جهد فعل في خلية ما بعد مشبكية. يمكن أن يكون للخلايا العصبية آلاف المشابك وأن تتلقي المعلومات من العديد من الخلايا. يتم الجمع بين هذه الإشارات في جسم الخلايا العصبية بعد المشبكية حيث تحدد الخلية ما إذا كانت الرسالة تمرر أم لا.بعد الارتباط لفترة وجيزة بمستقبلات ما بعد المشبك،قد تنتشر النواقل العصبية أو تتحلل أو يعاد تدويرها. غالبًا ما تكون بروتينات إعادة امتصاص الخلايا قبل المشبكية مسؤولة عن إعادة تدوير الناقلات العصبية. إن إطلاق وربط الناقلات العصبية عبر المشابك يسمح للإشارات الكهربائية لجهود الفعل بأن تتواصل مع الخلايا العصبية المجاورة.هذه العملية متعددة الخطوات لهي عملية في غاية الأهمية من أجل وظائف الخلايا العصبية.

Xu-Friedman، Matthew A. "قياس الخصائص الفسيولوجية الأساسية لنقاط الاشتباك العصبي". بروتوكولات كولد سبرينج هاربور 2017 ، رقم 1 (1 يناير 2017): pdb.top089680. <a href = "https://doi.org/10.1101/pdb.top089680" >[مصدر]</a>

شنغ ومورغان وأونجون كيم. "تنظيم ما بعد المشبك للاشتباك العصبي". وجهات نظر كولد سبرينج هاربور في علم الأحياء 3 ، رقم 12 (1 ديسمبر 2011): a005678. <a href = "https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a005678" >[مصدر]</a>

المشبك العصبي

تتواصل الخلايا العصبية مع بعضها البعض عن طريق تمرير إشاراتها الكهربائية إلى الخلايا العصبية الأخرى. المشبك هو المكان الذي تلتقي فيه خليتان من الخلايا العصبية لتبادل الإشارات. في المشبك ، تسمى الخلية العصبية التي ترسل الإشارة بالخلية قبل المشبكية ، بينما تسمى الخلية العصبية التي تستقبل الرسالة بالخلية ما بعد المشبكي. لاحظ أن معظم الخلايا العصبية يمكن أن تكون قبل المشبكي وما بعد المشبكي ، حيث تقوم بنقل المعلومات واستقبالها.

المشبك الكهربائي هو أحد أنواع المشابك التي تقترن فيها الخلايا ما قبل المشبكية وخلايا ما بعد المشبك فعلياً ببروتينات تسمى تقاطعات الفجوة. هذا يسمح للإشارات الكهربائية أن تنتقل مباشرة إلى خلية ما بعد المشبكي. تتمثل إحدى ميزات هذه المشابك في أنها يمكن أن تنقل الإشارات الكهربائية بسرعة كبيرة _ وأحياناً بجزء بسيط من ميلي ثانية _ ولا تتطلب أي مدخلات طاقة. غالباً ما يكون هذا مفيداً في الدوائر التي تعد جزءاً من سلوكيات الهروب ، مثل تلك الموجودة في جراد البحر التي تقرن إحساس المفترس بتفعيل الاستجابة الحركية.

في المقابل ، فإن الانتقال في المشابك الكيميائية هو عملية متدرجة. عندما يصل جهد الفعل إلى نهاية الطرف المحوري ، تفتح قنوات الكالسيوم ذات الجهد الكهربائي وتسمح بدخول أيونات الكالسيوم. تؤدي هذه الأيونات إلى اندماج الحويصلات المحتوية على ناقل عصبي مع الغشاء الخلوي ، مما يؤدي إلى إطلاق نواقل عصبية في الفراغ الصغير بين الخلايا العصبية ، ويسمى الشق المشبكي. هذه النواقل العصبية _ بما في ذلك الغلوتامات ، GABA ، الدوبامين ، والسيروتونين _ تكون متاحة للارتباط بمستقبلات محددة على غشاء الخلية بعد المشبكي. بعد الارتباط بالمستقبلات ، يمكن إعادة تدوير النواقل العصبية أو تحللها أو نشرها بعيداً عن الشق المشبكي.

تسود المشابك الكيميائية في دماغ الإنسان ، وبسبب التأخير المرتبط بإطلاق الناقل العصبي ، فإنها تتميز عن المشابك الكهربائية. أولاً ، قد يتم إطلاق عدد قليل أو العديد من الحويصلات ، مما يؤدي إلى مجموعة متنوعة من الاستجابات ما بعد المشبكي. ثانياً ، قد يؤدي الارتباط بمستقبلات مختلفة إلى زيادة أو تقليل إمكانات الغشاء في الخلية بعد المشبكي. بالإضافة إلى ذلك ، يتم تنظيم توافر الناقلات العصبية في الشق المشبكي عن طريق إعادة التدوير والانتشار. وبهذه الطريقة ، تحقق المشابك الكيميائية إشارات عصبية يمكن تنظيمها وضبطها بدرجة عالية.

تتواصل الخلايا العصبية مع بعضها البعض عن طريق تمرير إشاراتها الكهربائية إلى الخلايا العصبية الأخرى. المشبك هو الموقع الذي تلتقي فيه خليتان عصبيتان للتبادل ...

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Biology

علم الأحياء

Human Biology

بيولوجيا الإنسان

Nervous System

الجهاز العصبي

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

المصطلحات والمفاهيم الأساسية

how neurons signal at synapses

Neurons communicate through synapses, the points where two neurons meet to pass on signals. At a synapse, the sending neuron is the presynaptic cell, and the receiving neuron is the postsynaptic cell. Most neurons can serve in both roles because they send and receive information.

Electrical synapses move signals directly between cells. The presynaptic and postsynaptic cells are linked by gap junctions, which are proteins that physically connect them. This type of synapse can pass electrical signals extremely quickly, sometimes in a fraction of a millisecond, and it does not require energy input. It is useful in escape circuits, such as the crayfish pathway that connects the detection of a predator to the motor response.

Chemical synapses work in a step-by-step way. When an action potential reaches the end of the axon terminal, voltage-gated calcium channels open and calcium ions enter the cell. These ions trigger vesicles filled with neurotransmitters to fuse with the cell membrane and release their contents into the synaptic cleft, the small space between neurons.

The released neurotransmitters, including glutamate, GABA, dopamine, and serotonin, bind to specific receptors on the postsynaptic membrane. After binding, they may be recycled, broken down, or diffuse away from the synaptic cleft. Chemical synapses are the main type in the human brain. Their delay allows more control, since different numbers of vesicles can be released and different receptors can produce either an increase or decrease in membrane potential. This regulation helps make neuronal signaling highly fine-tuned.

How Neurons Signal at Synapses

what is a nervous system?

Nervous System Parts and Control

The nervous system is a network of specialized cells that keeps the body working and helps it respond to the world around it. It controls essential functions such as heart rate and breathing. It also supports movement that helps an organism escape danger. In vertebrates, the nervous system has two major parts: the central nervous system, or CNS, and the peripheral nervous system, or PNS. The CNS includes the brain, spinal cord, and retina, which is the sensory tissue of the visual system. The...

the parasympathetic nervous system

Rest and Digest: Parasympathetic Control

The parasympathetic nervous system helps the body stay calm and return to a rested state. It is one of the two major divisions of the autonomic nervous system, which controls many unconscious functions such as heart rate and digestion. Its neurons are found in the brain and the peripheral nervous system, and they send axons to muscles, organs, and glands. This system is often called the “rest and digest” system because it supports body processes that restore homeostasis. It is most active...

the sympathetic nervous system

Sympathetic Stress Response and Body Changes

The sympathetic nervous system helps the body respond to stress and danger. It is one of the two main divisions of the autonomic nervous system. When it turns on, it prepares the body for action and puts lower-priority functions, such as digestion, on hold. This response is often called the fight-or-flight system. A surprise exam can trigger it, and students may notice a tight stomach, a dry mouth, and a fast heartbeat. In a real threat, the system shifts blood away from the digestive system...

the blood-brain barrier

How the Blood-Brain Barrier Works

The blood-brain barrier is a specialized system of blood vessels that helps control what enters the brain. It delivers nutrients from the blood while tightly regulating ions, molecules, pathogens, and other substances. This semipermeable barrier protects the brain and also makes it harder to deliver some therapies. The blood-brain barrier includes several cellular parts, especially endothelial cells and astrocytes. These cells share a common basement membrane and regulate movement between the...

neuron structure

How Neurons Send Signals

Neurons send signals through a clear set of structures that let them receive, process, and pass on information. They are the main cells of the nervous system and use electrochemical signals to communicate. Neurons also talk to other cells through neurotransmitters at junctions called synapses. Most neurons share three main parts: a cell body, also called the soma, dendrites, and an axon. The soma holds the nucleus and other organelles needed for cell function. Dendrites usually receive...

glial cells

Glial Cells and Nervous System Support

Glial cells support the nervous system and work alongside neurons. They are one of the two main cell types in the nervous system. Unlike neurons, glia do not send electrical signals, but they help with nearly every other part of nervous system function. In humans, glial cells are about as numerous as neurons in the brain. In the central nervous system, glia include astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, and ependymal cells. Astrocytes are the most common glial cells. They form organized,...

action potentials

How Nerve Signals Travel in Axons

Neurons send signals through action potentials, the rapid electrical changes that move along the axon. These signals lead to neurotransmitter release at axon terminals, which passes information through the nervous system. An action potential is an all-or-none change in membrane potential, the voltage across a cell membrane. A neuron usually has a resting membrane potential of about -70 millivolts. When it receives signals from neurotransmitters or sensory input, the membrane can become more...

the resting membrane potential

How Neurons Keep a Negative Resting Charge

Neurons keep a negative resting charge across their membrane. This electrical difference, called the membrane potential, comes from how ions move and how the membrane lets them pass. In a resting neuron, the inside is typically around -70 millivolts and is more negative than the outside, so the cell is polarized. Two main factors create this resting state. First, the membrane is selectively permeable, which means most ions and molecules cannot cross the lipid bilayer without help from ion...

long-term potentiation

Synaptic Strengthening in Learning and Memory

Long-term potentiation, or LTP, is a form of synaptic strengthening in the brain. It changes the strength of chemical synapses over time between pre- and postsynaptic neurons. LTP works against long-term depression, or LTD, which weakens synapses. Together, LTP and LTD are major mechanisms behind learning and memory. LTP can happen when a presynaptic neuron fires again and again and keeps stimulating a postsynaptic neuron. This is called Hebbian LTP, based on Donald Hebb’s idea that neurons...

long-term depression

Synaptic Pruning in Long-term Depression

Long-term depression, or LTD, is a form of synaptic plasticity that weakens chemical synapses over time. It acts between presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons. LTD works in opposition to long-term potentiation, or LTP, which strengthens synapses. Together, LTD and LTP are two of the main mechanisms behind learning and memory. LTD helps the brain avoid staying locked in a fully strengthened state. If synapses were always maximally strengthened, the brain would become less efficient and it would...

the synapse

Neurons communicate through synapses, the points where two neurons meet to pass on signals. At a synapse, the sending neuron is the presynaptic cell, and the receiving neuron is the postsynaptic cell. Most neurons can serve in both roles because they send and receive information. Electrical synapses move signals directly between cells. The presynaptic and postsynaptic cells are linked by gap junctions, which are proteins that physically connect them. This type of synapse can pass electrical...

key terms and concepts

Learn how neurons signal through electrical and chemical synapses, from gap junctions and calcium entry to neurotransmitters and receptors.

How Neurons Signal at Synapses | JoVE K12

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Structural Organization of the Human Body: An Overview

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1. Obtain, evaluate, and communicate information to explain how differences in cellular structure (mitochondria, cytoskeletal structure, endoplasmic reticulum, cell membrane) lead to differences in the function and organization of the four tissue types (epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous).

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a. Construct an explanation of the relationships between the integumentary system and other organ systems, including the body's mechanisms for maintaining homeostasis. Examples: Explain how changes in vessel diameter and evaporation of water over the skin contribute to thermoregulation (cardiovascular). Explain how sweat is used to excrete nitrogenous waste from the blood (cardiovascular). Explain how the skin and mucous membranes create a barrier against infection (immune system).

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Overview of the Axial Skeleton

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3. Develop and use a model to illustrate how the structures of the skeletal system contribute to its function. Examples: Create a diagram or 3D model to illustrate bone shape, joint types, and bones in the appendicular and axial skeletons. Use models to illustrate the role of the skeletal system in movements around joints, support of a body structure, and protection of soft tissues.

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Bone Formation by Intramembranous Ossification

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Bone Remodeling and Repair

a. Obtain, evaluate, and communicate information describing the growth and development of the skeletal system.

9-12.HA.1.3.a

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b. Construct an explanation of the relationships between the skeletal system and other organ systems, including the body's mechanisms for maintaining homeostasis. Examples: Explain the role of spongy bone in hematopoiesis (cardiovascular system) and leukopoiesis (immune system). Explain how the storage of minerals in bone contributes to homeostasis.

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The Muscular System

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Naming Skeletal Muscles

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9-12.HA.1.4

Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscles

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The Sarcomere

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Excitation-Contraction Coupling in Skeletal Muscles

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Relaxation of Skeletal Muscles

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a. Model the cellular physiology of skeletal muscle, including how the cell functions in muscle contraction and relaxation. Example: Use straws and paper to create a model of a sarcomere to illustrate how the fibers move during contraction and relaxation.

9-12.HA.1.4.a

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b. Obtain, evaluate, and communicate information to explain muscle fatigue and tone in terms of muscle cell physiology.

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9-12.HA.1.5

Action Potential

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Action Potential: Phases of Stimulation

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b. Construct an explanation of the role of reflex arcs, the central nervous system, and special senses in the response to stimuli to maintain homeostasis and guide behavior. Example: smelling a strong odor initiating a sneeze response using a reflex arc; pupil diameter changing in relation to the amount of light entering the eye Clarification: Discussion of the anatomy and physiology of the sensory organs is not required.

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Chemical Synapses

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c. Construct an explanation of the role of neurotransmitters in the functions and behavior of the nervous system. Clarification: Discussion of classes of neurotransmitters is not required.

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functional-brain-systems-reticular-formation

Functional Brain Systems: Reticular Formation

The reticular formation is a complex network of gray and white matter spread across the core of the brainstem.
It is roughly divided into three paired ...

higher-mental-functions-of-brain-learning-and-memory

Higher Mental Functions of Brain: Learning and Memory

Memory is one of the most vital higher mental functions of the brain. Memory is closely related to learning because it enables us to retain information ...

d. Obtain, evaluate, and summarize scientific findings regarding the biological origin of emotions and memories in distinct regions of the brain. Examples: the role of the frontal lobe in emotional regulation, the regulation of fear response by the amygdala

9-12.HA.1.5.d

How Neurons Signal at Synapses

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