Name: using standard enthalpy values in chemistry
Uploaded: 2020-09-03T13:38:27.000Z
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PS.Chm.7.2

Standard Enthalpy of Formation

إنّتغير المحتوى الحراري للتفاعل يمكن قياسه باستخدام جهاز قياس السعرات الحرارية،أو يمكن الوصول إليها عن طريق حساب الفرق في المحتوى الحراري بين المتفاعلات والنواتج. ومع ذلك،فإن المحتوى الحراري المطلق للمواد المتفاعلة والنواتج لا يمكن قياسها مباشرة وبالتالي،يستخدم الكيميائيون عمومًا التغيير في المحتوى الحراري،أو دلتا H،بالنسبة إلى مادة مرجعية متفق عليها في الحالة القياسية. يتم تحديد الحالة القياسية من خلال مجموعة محددة من الشروط.يتضمن ذلك درجة حرارة محددة،عادةً25 درجة مئوية أو 298 كلفن،وضغط ثابت 1 بار للغازات. بالنسبة للمحلول،الحالة القياسية هي تركيز مولاري واحد لمذاب نقي في مذيب. الحالة المعيارية للمادة،تشمل أيضًا الحالة المادية للمادة والتي توجد فيها المادة في ظل هذه الظروف.على سبيل المثال،كلوريد الصوديوم كمادة صلبة،الزئبق كسائل،أو الهيليوم كغاز. إذا كان العنصر موجودًا في أكثر من شكل في ظل هذه الظروف،فإنّالشكل الأكثر استقرارًا للعنصر يتم تعريفه على أنه الحالة القياسية. على سبيل المثال،يمكن أن يوجد الكربون في شكل بلورات من الجرافيت أو الألماس،لكن الجرافيت هو الشكل الأكثر استقرارًا وبالتالي،الحالة القياسية للكربون.عندما تكون العناصر في حالاتها القياسية و تتحد لتشكل 1 مول من مركب نقي،يسمى المحتوى الحراري للتفاعل المحتوى الحراري القياسي،أو الحرارة المعيارية للتكوين. يشار إلى هذا بواسطة دلتا H صفر،منخفض f،حيث يشير صفر إلى الحالات القياسية من العناصر المكونة،بينما تشير f إلى التكوين. المحتوى الحراري القياسي للتكوين للعناصر النقية،في ظل ظروف الحالة القياسية،دائمًا صفر لأنه لا يوجد تفاعل،وبالتالي لا يوجد تغيير في المحتوى الحراري،عندما يكون العنصر بالفعل في حالته القياسية.قيم المحتوى الحراري القياسي للتكوين بالكيلوجول لكل مول للمركب يمكن العثور عليها في الجداول المرجعية. هذه المواد تشمل العناصر في الحالات غير القياسية،مثل الصوديوم الغازي،ومركبات مثل كلوريد الصوديوم. التغيير القياسي في المحتوى الحراري للتفاعل يمكن حسابه من اختلاف النواتج والمتفاعلات،والتي بدورها يمكن حسابها باستخدام قيم المحتوى الحراري من الجدول المرجعي.

<ol>
	<li>هوك ، إريك لي. "حساب المحتوى الحراري القياسي لتكوين الألكانات: توضيح الميكانيكا الجزيئية وبرامج جداول البيانات". مجلة التربية الكيميائية 76 ، العدد 2 (1999): 278.</li>
	<li>مازوكا ، جيمس دبليو ، أليكسيس ر. داونينج ، وكريستوفر بوتر. "حسابات الهيكل الإلكتروني المصححة تجريبيا المطبقة على المحتوى الحراري لمختبر الكيمياء الفيزيائية للاحتراق." مجلة التربية الكيميائية 96 ، العدد 6 (2019): 1165-1170.</li>
	<li>يانسن ، مايكل ب. "تكلفة تحويل مركبة تعمل بالبنزين إلى بروبان. مشكلة مراجعة عملية للمدرسة الثانوية العليا أو الكيمياء التمهيدية." مجلة التربية الكيميائية 77 ، العدد 12 (2000): 1578. 
	 </li>
</ol>

حرارة التكوين القياسية

عادة ما يتم جدولة التغيرات في المحتوى الحراري للتفاعلات التي يكون فيها كل من المواد المتفاعلة والمنتجات في نفس الظروف. الحالة القياسية هي مجموعة شروط مقبولة بشكل عام تستخدم كنقطة مرجعية لتحديد الخصائص في ظل ظروف أخرى مختلفة. بالنسبة للكيميائيين، تشير الحالة القياسية IUPAC إلى المواد التي تخضع لضغط 1 بار والمحاليل عند 1 م من غير تحديد درجة الحرارة. تسرد العديد من الجداول الكيميائية الحرارية القيم بالحالة القياسية 1 atm. لأن قيمة ΔH للتفاعل تتغير قليلاً جداً مع هذه التغييرات الصغيرة في الضغط (شريط واحد = 0.987 atm)، فإن قيم ΔH (باستثناء القيم التي تم قياسها بدقة) هي نفسها بشكل أساسي في كلتا مجموعتي الشروط القياسية. يشير الرمز “o” العلوي في رمز التغير في المحتوى الحراري إلى الحالة القياسية. وبما أن درجة الحرارة المعتادة (ولكنها ليست قياسية من الناحية الفنية) هي 298.15 كلفن، فإن درجة الحرارة هذه ستفترض ما لم يتم تحديد درجة حرارة أخرى. وبالتالي، يُستخدم الرمز (ΔH°) للإشارة إلى التغير في المحتوى الحراري لعملية تحدث في ظل هذه الظروف. (يُستخدم الرمز ΔH للإشارة إلى التغير في المحتوى الحراري للتفاعل الذي يحدث في ظل ظروف غير قياسية). تتوفر التغيرات في المحتوى الحراري للعديد من أنواع العمليات الكيميائية والفيزيائية في الكتابات المرجعية، بما في ذلك تلك المتعلقة بتفاعلات الاحتراق، وانتقالات المرحلة، وتفاعلات التكوين. وبما أن التغير في المحتوى الحراري لتفاعل معين يتناسب مع كميات المواد المستخدمة، فقد يتم الإبلاغ عنه على هذا الأساس (أي، باعتباره قيمة ΔH لكميات معينة من المواد المتفاعلة). ومع ذلك، غالبًا ما نجد أنه من المفيد تقسيم خاصية واحدة موسعة (ΔH) على خاصية أخرى (كمية المادة)، والإبلاغ عن قيمة مكثفة لكل كمّية من قيمة ΔH، والتي غالباً مايتم “تسويتها” على أساس كل مول.  <h4>حرارة التكوين القياسية </h4>المحتوى الحراري المعياري للتكوُّن، تكون قيمة التغيّر في ΔHf° المحتوى الحراري للتفاعل الذي يتكون فيه مول واحد فقط من مادة نقية من عناصر حرة في أكثر الحالات استقراراً في ظل ظروف الحالة القياسية. وهذه القيم مفيدة بشكل خاص في حساب التغيرات في المحتوى الحراري أو توقعها للتفاعلات الكيميائية غير العملية أو الخطيرة في تنفيذها، أو للعمليات التي يصعب إجراء القياسات لها. باستخدام قيم حرارة التكوين القياسية المعروفة، يمكن تحديد التغير في المحتوى الحراري لأي تفاعل. حرارة التكوين القياسية لغاز CO2 (g) هي −393.5 كيلوجول/مول. هذا هو التغير في المحتوى الحراري للتفاعل الطارد للحرارة:  <img alt="Eq1" src="https://www.jovecore.com/CDNSource/lessons/801/801_Equations-01.png" style="height: 40px;" />تبدأ المواد المتفاعلة بضغط 1 atm و 25°C (مع وجود الكربون في صورة جرافيت، الشكل الأكثر استقراراً للكربون في ظل هذه الظروف) وتنتهي بمول واحد من CO2، كما في 1 atm و 25 °C. بالنسبة لثاني أكسيد النيتروجين، NO2 (g) ، تكون قيمة ΔHf° هي 33.2 كيلوجول/مول. هذا هو التغير في المحتوى الحراري للتفاعل الماص للحرارة: <img alt="Eq2" src="https://www.jovecore.com/CDNSource/lessons/801/801_Equations-02.png" style="height: 40px;" />معادلة التفاعل مع 1/2 مول من N2 و1 مول من O2 هي معادلة صحيحة في هذه الحالة لأن المحتوى الحراري المعياري للتكوّن يشير دائمًا إلى مول واحد من الناتج: NO2 (g).إن المحتوى الحراري المعياري لتكوين عنصر في شكله الأكثر استقرارًا يساوي صفراً في ظل الظروف القياسية. على سبيل المثال، تكون حرارة التكوين القياسية للكربون (الجرافين) وغاز الأكسجين ثنائي الذرة وغاز النيتروجين ثنائي الذرة وفلز الصوديوم والزئبق السائل صفر في ظل الظروف القياسية. هذا النص مقتبس من <a href="https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/5-3-enthalpy">Openstax, Chemistry 2e, Section 5.3: Enthalpy.</a>

عادة ما يتم جدولة تغيرات المحتوى الحراري للتفاعلات التي تكون فيها كل من المواد المتفاعلة والمنتجات في نفس الظروف. الحالة القياسية هي عادة ...

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using standard enthalpy values in chemistry

Enthalpy changes are often listed for reactions that start and end under the same conditions. Chemists use a standard state as a reference set of conditions for comparing properties. In IUPAC terms, the standard state means 1 bar of pressure and 1 M solutions, but it does not set a temperature.

Many thermochemical tables still use 1 atm as the reference pressure. Because the difference between 1 bar and 1 atm is very small, enthalpy change usually stays almost the same. A superscripted o in the enthalpy symbol shows that the value is for standard state. The usual temperature is 298.15 K, so ΔH° is often used for a process under these conditions. ΔH is used for nonstandard conditions.

Standard enthalpy values are available for many chemical and physical processes. These include combustion reactions, phase changes, and formation reactions. Enthalpy change depends on the amount of substance involved, so it can be reported for a specific reaction amount. It is often more useful to divide by moles and give a per-mole value.

The standard enthalpy of formation, ΔHf°, is the enthalpy change when 1 mole of a pure substance forms from its elements in their most stable states under standard conditions. This value is useful when a reaction is hard to measure directly or would be unsafe to run. Known formation enthalpies can also be used to calculate the enthalpy change of other reactions.

For example, the standard enthalpy of formation of CO2(g) is −393.5 kJ/mol. That value matches the exothermic formation of one mole of carbon dioxide from graphite, the most stable form of carbon under these conditions, with all substances at 1 atm and 25 °C. For NO2(g), ΔHf° is 33.2 kJ/mol. Here the balanced formation reaction uses 1/2 mole of N2 and 1 mole of O2 because the value must refer to 1 mole of NO2 product.

By definition, an element in its most stable form has a standard enthalpy of formation of zero. Examples include carbon as graphene, diatomic oxygen gas, diatomic nitrogen gas, sodium metal, and liquid mercury. These zero values help make thermochemical calculations consistent.

Using Standard Enthalpy Values in Chemistry

using-standard-enthalpy-values-in-chemistry

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Calculating reaction heat with Hess's law uses standard enthalpies of formation to find the enthalpy change of a reaction. When the formation values for the reactants and products are known, the overall reaction can be broken into simpler stepwise reactions. This approach helps show how the heat change for the full reaction is built from smaller parts. First, the reactants are thought of as being decomposed into their component elements. The enthalpy change for this step is proportional to the...

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Using Standard Enthalpy Values in Chemistry | JoVE K12

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The ideal-gas equation, which is empirical, describes the behavior of gases by establishing relationships between their macroscopic properties. For ...

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Kinetic Molecular Theory and Gas Laws Explain Properties of Gas Molecules

The test of the kinetic molecular theory (KMT) and its postulates is its ability to explain and describe the behavior of a gas. The various gas laws ...

kinetic-molecular-theory-molecular-velocities-temperature-kinetic

Kinetic Molecular Theory: Molecular Velocities, Temperature, and Kinetic Energy

The kinetic molecular theory qualitatively explains the behaviors described by the various gas laws. The postulates of this theory may be applied in a ...

behavior-gas-molecules-molecular-diffusion-mean-free-path

Behavior of Gas Molecules: Molecular Diffusion, Mean Free Path, and Effusion

Although gaseous molecules travel at tremendous speeds (hundreds of meters per second), they collide with other gaseous molecules and travel in many ...

real-gases-effects-intermolecular-forces-molecular-volume-deriving

Real Gases: Effects of Intermolecular Forces and Molecular Volume Deriving Van der Waals Equation

Thus far, the ideal gas law, PV = nRT, has been applied to a variety of different types of problems, ranging from reaction stoichiometry and empirical and ...

Ideal Gas Law

Source: Laboratory of Dr. Andreas Z&#252;ttel - Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology
The ideal gas law describes the behavior ...

Derivation of the Ideal Gas Law
Gases are a fundamental state of matter. A gas is a collection of molecules that have a significant distance between their ...

Source: Smaa Koraym at Johns Hopkins University, MD, USA

	Preparation of the LaboratoryExpand
	Here, we show the laboratory preparation for 10 students ...

Source: Smaa Koraym at Johns Hopkins University, MD, USA

	Determining the Mass of the Unknown LiquidExpand
	According to the ideal gas law for a given ...

Use mathematics and computational thinking to explain the relationships among pressure, temperature, volume, and quantity of gas, both qualitatively and quantitatively.

PS.Chm.7.3

Understand the relationship among pressure, temperature, volume, and phase.

Using Standard Enthalpy Values in Chemistry

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