Name: measuring light with wavelength and frequency
Uploaded: 2020-09-03T13:38:27.000Z
Duration: 2 min 12 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills

High School

Chemistry and Physics

IPC.7

IPC.7.E

The Wave Nature of Light

ضوء الشمس،أجهزة الميكروويف المستخدمة لطهي الطعام،وموجات الراديو المنبعثة من أجهزة توجيه wi-fi كلها أمثلة على الإشعاع الكهرومغناطيسي. الإشعاع الكهرومغناطيسي هو إرسال من الطاقة التي تأتي من حركة الجسيمات المشحونة كهربياًهذه الحركة تخلق تذبذبًا متعامد للمجالات الكهربائية والمغناطيسية و تنتشر عبر الفضاء على شكل موجات. مثل كل الموجات،الموجات الكهرومغناطيسية تتميز بالسعة،وطول الموجة،والتردد.ذروة السعة هي المسافة من خط الوسط إلى قمة أو قاع الموجة. و هو يحدد شدة الموجة. على سبيل المثال،سعة الضوء المرئي مرتبط بسطوعه السعة أكبر،إذا كان الضوء أكثر سطوعًا أو كثافة.الطول الموجي هو المسافة بين نقطتين متطابقتين على موجات متجاورة،مثل القمم أو القيعان المتتالية يرمز لها بالحرف اليوناني لامبادا. يمكن تصنيف الإشعاع الكهرومغناطيسي حسب الطول الموجي،والذي يمكن أن يتراوح من كيلومترات إلى بيكومتر. على سبيل المثال،نطاق الطول الموجي للضوء المرئي حوالي 400 إلى 750 نانومتر،والتي تتوافق مع الضوء البنفسجي والأحمر،على التوالي.التردد،والذي يرمز له بالحرف اليوناني نو،هو عدد دورات الموجة التي تمر عبر نقطة مرجعية في ثانية واحدة،ويتم قياسه بالهرتز،أو الدورات في الثانية. الطول الموجي هو عرض دورة واحدة. سرعة الموجة هي ناتج ترددها وطولها الموجي.ومن ثم،فإن تردد الموجة يتناسب طرديا مع السرعة الذي تسير عندها الموجة. ومع ذلك،فهو يتناسب عكسيا مع الطول الموجي للموجة. لذلك،الأمواج ذات الأطوال الموجية الطويلة،مثل موجات الراديو،لها ترددات منخفضة.هذه الموجات أقل نشاطا من الأمواج ذات الترددات العالية والأطوال الموجية القصيرة،مثل أشعة جاما.

طبيعة الضوء الموجية

كانت طبيعة الضوء موضع بحث منذ العصور القديمة. في القرن السابع عشر، أجرى إسحاق نيوتن تجارب باستخدام العدسات والمنشورات وكان قادراً على توضيح أن الضوء الأبيض يتكون من ألوان فردية لقوس قزح مجتمعة. شرح نيوتن النتائج التي توصل إليها في مجال البصريات من حيث رؤية "الجزيئات الصغيرة" للضوء، حيث يتكون الضوء من تيارات من جسيمات بالغة الصغر تتحرك بسرعات عالية وفقًا لقوانين الحركة الخاصة بنيوتن' .  وقد أظهر آخرون في القرن السابع عشر، مثل كريستيان هيوجينز، أن الظواهر البصرية مثل الانعكاس والانكسار يمكن تفسيرها على نحو جيد بنفس القدر من حيث الضوء كالموجات التي تنتقل بسرعة عالية عبر وسيطة تسمى "الأثير المضيء" والتي كان من المعتقد أنها تتخلل كل الفضاء. في أوائل القرن التاسع عشر، أظهر توماس يونج أن الضوء الذي يمر عبر شقوق ضيقة متباعدة بشكل وثيق أنتج أنماط تداخل لم يكن من الممكن تفسيرها من حيث جسيمات نيوتونيان ولكن يمكن تفسيرها بسهولة من حيث الموجات. في وقت لاحق من القرن التاسع عشر، بعد أن طور جيمس كليرك ماكسويل نظريته من الإشعاع الكهرومغناطيسي وأظهر أن الضوء كان الجزء المرئي من طيف واسع من الموجات الكهرومغناطيسية، أصبحت نظرة جسيم للضوء تفقد مصداقيتها بالكامل.  وبحلول نهاية القرن التاسع عشر، كان العلماء ينظرون إلى الكون الفيزيائي على أنه يتألف من مجالين منفصلين تقريباً: المادة المكونة من جسيمات تتحرك وفقاً لقوانين الحركة الخاصة بنيوتن'، والإشعاع الكهرومغناطيسي الذي يتكون من موجات تحكمها معادلات ماكسويل#39;. واليوم، يشار إلى هذه المجالات باسم الميكانيكا الكلاسيكية والديناميات الكهربائية الكلاسيكية (أو الكهرومغناطيسية الكلاسيكية). ورغم وجود بضع ظواهر مادية لم يكن من الممكن تفسيرها في هذا الإطار، فإن العلماء في ذلك الوقت كانوا واثقين إلى حد ما من السلامة العامة لهذا الإطار حتى أنهم كانوا ينظرون إلى هذه الانحرافات باعتبارها مفارقات محيرة يمكن حلها في نهاية المطاف بطريقة ما داخل هذا الإطار. وقد أدت هذه المفارقات إلى إطار معاصر يربط بشكل وثيق بين الجسيمات والموجات على مستوى أساسي يسمى ثنائية الموجة والجسيمات، وهو ما حل محل النظرة الكلاسيكية. يلعب الضوء المرئي والأشكال الأخرى للإشعاع الكهرومغناطيسي أدواراً مهمة في الكيمياء حيث يمكن استخدامها للاستدلال على طاقات الإلكترونات داخل الذرات والجزيئات. تعتمد معظم التقنيات الحديثة على الإشعاع الكهرومغناطيسي. على سبيل المثال، الموجات اللاسلكية من هاتف محمول، والأشعة السينية التي يستخدمها أطباء الأسنان، والطاقة المستخدمة لطهي الطعام في الميكروويف، والحرارة الإشعاعية من الأجسام الحمراء الساخنة، والضوء من شاشة التلفزيون هي أشكال من الإشعاع الكهرومغناطيسي الذي تعرض كلها سلوك أسي متموج. <h4>الموجات </h4>الموجة هي التأرجح أو الحركة الدورية التي يمكنها نقل الطاقة من نقطة في الفضاء إلى أخرى. ومن حولنا جميعاً أمثلة شائعة للموجات. يؤدي هزّ طرف الحبل إلى نقل الطاقة من يدك إلى الطرف الآخر من الحبل، ويؤدي إسقاط هابل في بركة إلى تموج الأمواج إلى الخارج على طول سطح الماء#39;، كما يؤدي تمدد الهواء المصاحب لصواعق البرق إلى توليد موجات صوتية (رعد) يمكن أن تنتقل إلى الخارج لعدة أميال. في كل حالة من هذه الحالات، تنتقل الطاقة الحركية من خلال المادة (الحبل أو الماء أو الهواء) بينما تظل المادة في مكانها بشكل أساسي.  لا ينبغي أن تقتصر الموجات على السفر عبر المادة. وكما أظهر ماكسويل، تتكون الموجات الكهرومغناطيسية من مجال كهربائي يتأرجح في خطوة مع مجال مغناطيسي عمودي، وكلاهما عمودي على اتجاه الحركة. يمكن أن تنتقل هذه الموجات عبر الفراغ بسرعة ثابتة تبلغ 2.998 × 108 م/ثانية، وهي سرعة الضوء (يُشار إليها بـ c). تتميز جميع الموجات، بما في ذلك أشكال الإشعاع الكهرومغناطيسي، بالطول الموجي (يشار إليه بـ λ، الحرف اليوناني الصغير lambda)، والتردد (الذي يرمز إليه بـ ν، الحرف اليوناني الصغير nu)، والسعة.  الطول الموجي هو المسافة بين القمتين المتتابعتين أو الفرق في الموجة (مقاسة بالأمتار في نظام SI). الموجات الكهرومغناطيسية قد لوحظ أن لها أطوال موجية تقع ضمن نطاق هائل من الأطوال الموجية من الكيلومترات (103 م) إلى البيكومترات (10−12 م) . والتردد هو عدد دورات الموجات التي تمر بنقطة محددة في الفضاء في مقدار محدد من الوقت (في النظام الدولي للوحدات SI، يتم قياس ذلك بالثواني). تتطابق الدورة مع طول موجي كامل واحد. وحدة التردد، التي يتم التعبير عنها كدورات في الثانية [s−1]، هي الهرتز (Hz). والمضاعفات الشائعة لهذه الوحدة هي ميجا هرتز (1 ميجا هرتز = 1 × 106 Hz) والجيجاهيرتز (1 جيجا هرتز = 1 × 109 Hz).  
 تتوافق السعة مع حجم إزاحة الموجة، ويتوافق ذلك مع نصف الارتفاع بين القمم والفرق. ترتبط السعة بكثافة الموجة، والتي تتعلق بالضوء بالسطوع، أما بالنسبة للصوت فهو ارتفاع الصوت. ويعتبر ناتج طول الموجة (wavelength) وترددها (wave)، الذي يعد من أكثر الدول سرعة للموجة. وبالتالي، بالنسبة للإشعاع الكهرومغناطيسي في الفراغ، تكون السرعة مساوية للثابت الأساسي، c: <img alt="Eq1" src="https://www.jovecore.com/CDNSource/lessons/974/974_Equations-01.png" style="height: 40px;" />الطول الموجي والتردد متناسبين عكسياً: كلما زاد الطول الموجي، ينخفض التردد. الطيف الكهرومغناطيسي هو نطاق جميع أنواع الإشعاع الكهرومغناطيسي.  هذا النص مقتبس من <a href="https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/6-1-electromagnetic-energy">Openstax, Chemistry 2e, Section 6.1: Electromagnetic Energy.</a>

كانت طبيعة الضوء موضوعا للتحقيق منذ العصور القديمة. في القرن السابع عشر ، أجرى إسحاق نيوتن تجارب على العدسات والمنشورات ...

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measuring light with wavelength and frequency

Light can be described as an electromagnetic wave, and its behavior helps explain many patterns seen in science. For centuries, scientists have tried to understand light. Newton used lenses and prisms to show that white light is made of the colors of the rainbow mixed together. He explained light as tiny particles moving at high speed.

Other scientists, including Christiaan Huygens, showed that reflection and refraction could also be explained by treating light as a wave. At the time, people imagined these waves traveling through a medium called luminiferous aether, which was thought to fill all space. In the early 1800s, Thomas Young showed that light passing through two narrow slits makes an interference pattern. That result fit the wave model much better than the particle model.

James Clerk Maxwell later developed electromagnetic theory and showed that visible light is part of a much larger spectrum of electromagnetic waves. By the end of the nineteenth century, many scientists accepted a split view of the physical world. Matter was described as particles, while electromagnetic radiation was described as waves. These ideas are now called classical mechanics and classical electrodynamics, or classical electromagnetism.

Some experimental results did not fit that classical picture. Scientists first saw them as strange puzzles that might still be solved within the old framework. Those puzzles eventually led to wave-particle duality, a modern idea that links waves and particles at a basic level. This idea replaced the older view.

Electromagnetic radiation matters in chemistry because it can help reveal the energies of electrons in atoms and molecules. It also powers many technologies. Radio waves from a mobile phone, X-rays used by dentists, microwave energy used to cook food, radiant heat from red-hot objects, and the light from a television screen are all forms of electromagnetic radiation. Each of these shows wavelike behavior.

A wave is an oscillation, or repeating motion, that carries energy from one place to another. Rope waves, ripples on water after a pebble falls in, and sound waves from thunder are common examples. In these cases, energy moves through the rope, water, or air while the material itself stays mostly in place. Waves do not have to travel through matter, because electromagnetic waves can move through empty space.

Maxwell showed that electromagnetic waves contain an electric field and a magnetic field that oscillate together. These fields are perpendicular to each other and to the direction the wave travels. In a vacuum, electromagnetic waves move at 2.998 × 10^8 m/s, which is the speed of light, c. Like all waves, they are described by wavelength, frequency, and amplitude.

Wavelength is the distance between two peaks or two troughs. Frequency is the number of wave cycles that pass a point in a given time. Amplitude is the size of the wave’s displacement, which is half the height between a peak and a trough. Amplitude is related to intensity, so for light it affects brightness, and for sound it affects loudness. Wavelength and frequency are linked by the equation λν = speed, so in a vacuum c = λν. As wavelength increases, frequency decreases. Electromagnetic waves span a huge range, from kilometers to picometers, and the full set is called the electromagnetic spectrum.

Measuring Light with Wavelength and Frequency

measuring-light-with-wavelength-and-frequency

the wave nature of light

Light can be described as an electromagnetic wave, and its behavior helps explain many patterns seen in science. For centuries, scientists have tried to understand light. Newton used lenses and prisms to show that white light is made of the colors of the rainbow mixed together. He explained light as tiny particles moving at high speed. Other scientists, including Christiaan Huygens, showed that reflection and refraction could also be explained by treating light as a wave. At the time, people...

the electromagnetic spectrum

Electromagnetic Waves: Uses Across the Spectrum

The electromagnetic spectrum includes all electromagnetic radiation arranged by frequency and wavelength. Visible light is only a small part of it, and each color of visible light has its own frequency and wavelength. Different parts of the spectrum also use different units. Radio waves are usually measured in MHz, while the visible range is often measured in nm or angstroms. The spectrum is organized from radio waves to gamma rays as frequency increases and wavelength decreases. Radio waves...

interference and diffraction

Wave Patterns from Light and Slits

Light can form wave patterns through interference and diffraction. When two electromagnetic waves meet with their peaks and troughs lined up, they combine into a larger wave. This is constructive interference, and the waves are in phase. When a peak of one wave meets a trough of the other, the waves reduce each other. This is destructive interference, and the result has a much lower amplitude. Diffraction is another wave behavior. When light passes through a slit that is about the same size as...

photoelectric effect

Why Light Ejects Electrons from Metals

Light can eject electrons from a metal surface when it has the right frequency. This process is called the photoelectric effect. Each metal has its own threshold frequency, which is the minimum light frequency needed to free electrons. Light below the threshold frequency cannot cause emission, even if it is very bright. When the light frequency is above the threshold, electrons are ejected. In that case, the number of electrons released is directly proportional to the intensity, or brightness,...

the bohr model

Bohr’s Quantized Atomic Orbits

Bohr’s quantized atomic orbits explain why hydrogen atoms can stay stable. Early in the twentieth century, Ernest Rutherford and his colleagues described atoms as tiny dense nuclei with lighter electrons moving around them. This picture was called the planetary model because it compared the atom to a miniature solar system, with electrons orbiting the nucleus like planets around the sun. The simplest atom is hydrogen. It has one proton in the nucleus and one electron moving around it. In the...

emission spectra

Line Spectra from Heated Gases

Line spectra are produced when heated gases give off light at specific wavelengths. In contrast, hot solids, liquids, or condensed gases radiate excess energy as a continuous spectrum. That spectrum contains an unbroken range of wavelengths. A gas at low partial pressure can produce a line spectrum when it is excited by an electric current or heated. Fluorescent light bulbs and neon signs work in this way. Each element has its own characteristic set of lines, and molecules can also produce...

the de broglie wavelength

Electron Waves and Standing Orbits

Electron waves and standing orbits explain how tiny particles can behave like waves. Large objects in the macroscopic world, like a billiard ball on a table, follow classical physics. A ball keeps moving in a straight line unless it hits another ball or a force such as friction acts on it. It also has a well-defined position, velocity, and momentum, where momentum is mass times velocity. Waves behave differently from macroscopic particles. When waves interact, they can form interference...

the uncertainty principle

Electron Position and Momentum Limits

Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle sets a limit on how precisely we can know an electron’s position and momentum at the same time. Momentum is the motion of a particle, and the two measurements affect each other. If the momentum is known more accurately, the position becomes less certain, and the reverse is also true. Heisenberg described this limit with an equation that uses Planck’s constant. The equation shows the smallest possible uncertainty for position and momentum together. It explains...

the quantum-mechanical model of an atom

Electron Orbitals in Quantum Mechanics

Quantum mechanics explains how electrons behave in atoms using waves and probability. Erwin Schrödinger built on de Broglie’s idea that an electron in hydrogen could act like a circular standing wave instead of moving in fixed circular paths. He then derived the Schrödinger equation, which became a major step in modern atomic theory. When Schrödinger applied his equation to hydrogen-like atoms, it matched Bohr’s energy expression and the Rydberg formula for hydrogen spectra. He described...

quantum numbers

Electron Orbitals and Spin

Electron orbitals are described by quantum numbers that show where an electron is most likely to be found around the nucleus. These numbers come from the quantum mechanical model, which is based on solutions of the Schrödinger equation. They also help explain why electron energy comes in set values instead of changing smoothly. The principal quantum number, n, labels the energy level. It can be 1, 2, 3, and so on, and higher n values usually mean higher electron energy. This number also tells...

atomic orbitals

Electron Regions in Atomic Orbitals

Electron regions in atomic orbitals show where an electron is most likely to be found in an atom. These three-dimensional regions are often drawn as boundary surfaces around the densest part of the cloud. The shape of an orbital depends on the angular momentum quantum number, l. This value can range from 0 to n - 1, where n is the principal quantum number. For n = 1, only l = 0 is allowed. For n = 2, both l = 0 and l = 1 are allowed. Orbitals with the same value of l form a subshell. The l =...

the pauli exclusion principle

Electron Spin and Orbital Pairing

Electron spin and orbital pairing explain why only two electrons can fit in one atomic orbital. Electron configuration describes how electrons are arranged in an atom’s orbitals. It is written with three parts: the principal quantum number, n, the orbital type, or subshell, and a superscript that shows how many electrons are in that subshell. For example, 2p4 means four electrons in a p subshell with n = 2, and 3d8 means eight electrons in a d subshell with n = 3. The three quantum numbers...

the energies of atomic orbitals

Shielding and Orbital Penetration

Shielding and orbital penetration help explain why electrons in an atom have different energies. Electrons are attracted to the positive nucleus, but they also repel one another in atoms with more than one electron. The strength of these forces depends on the charge and the distance between the particles. Opposite charges attract, like charges repel, and the force gets weaker as the particles move farther apart. An electron that stays closer to the nucleus is held more tightly. That means...

the aufbau principle and hund's rule

Electron Filling Order in Atomic Orbitals

Electron filling order in atomic orbitals follows the aufbau principle and Hund's rule. To write an electron configuration, we build atoms in order of atomic number. Starting with hydrogen and moving across the periods of the periodic table, one proton is added to the nucleus and one electron is placed into the correct subshell. This process describes the ground-state electron configurations of the elements. The aufbau principle comes from the German word aufbau, which means "to build up." It...

electron configuration of multielectron atoms

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Valence Electrons and Noble Gas Shorthand

Valence electrons and noble gas shorthand help show how electrons are arranged in multielectron atoms. Sodium, the alkali metal with atomic number 11, has one more electron than neon. That extra electron goes into the lowest-energy subshell available, the 3s orbital, so sodium has the configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1. Electrons in the outermost shell, where n is highest, are called valence electrons. Electrons in the inner shells are called core electrons. Because core electrons often match a...

key terms and concepts

Explore light as an electromagnetic wave, including wavelength, frequency, amplitude, the speed of light, and examples from the electromagnetic spectrum.

Measuring Light with Wavelength and Frequency | JoVE K12

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JoVE Core Chemistry brings general chemistry concepts to life using concise and easy-to-understand animated video lessons. Plus, in the scientist-in-action videos, we demonstrate classical and original research experiments performed in today's laboratories worldwide.

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An ionic compound is stable because of the electrostatic attraction between its positive and negative ions. The lattice energy of a compound is a measure ...

Covalent Bonding and Lewis Structures

Compared to ionic bonds, which results from the transfer of electrons between metallic and nonmetallic atoms, covalent bonds result from the mutual ...

Electronegativity

Whether a bond is nonpolar or polar covalent is determined by a property of the bonding atoms called electronegativity.&#xA0;

Electronegativity values of ...

bond-polarity-dipole-moment-and-percent-ionic-character

Bond Polarity, Dipole Moment, and Percent Ionic Character

Bond Polarity

The absolute value of the difference in electronegativity (&Delta;EN) of two bonded atoms provides a rough measure of the polarity to be ...

lewis-structures-of-molecular-compounds-and-polyatomic-ions

Lewis Structures of Molecular Compounds and Polyatomic Ions

To draw Lewis structures for complicated molecules and molecular ions, it is helpful to follow a step-by-step procedure as outlined:


	Determine the ...

Bond Energies and Bond Lengths

Stable molecules exist because covalent bonds hold the atoms together. The strength of a covalent bond is measured by the energy required to break it, ...

Bonding in Metals

Metallic bonds are formed between two metal atoms. A simplified model to describe metallic bonding has been developed by Paul Dr&#xFC;de called the ...

Model basic atomic structure and relate an element's atomic structure to its bonding, reactivity, and placement on the Periodic Table.

IPC.7.A

physical-and-chemical-properties-of-matter

Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter

The characteristics that enable us to distinguish one substance from another are called properties.

Physical Properties of Matter

A physical property is ...

atomic-radii-and-effective-nuclear-charge

Atomic Radii and Effective Nuclear Charge

The elements in groups of the periodic table exhibit similar chemical behavior. This similarity occurs because the members of a group have the same number ...

Ionic Radii

Ionic radius is the measure used to describe the size of an ion. A cation always has fewer electrons and the same number of protons as the parent atom; it ...

Ionization Energy

The amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from a gaseous atom in its ground state is called its first ionization energy ...

Electron Affinity

The electron affinity (EA) is the energy change for adding an electron to a gaseous atom to form an anion (negative ion).



This process can be either ...

Alkali Metals

Group 1 elements are soft and shiny metallic solids. They are malleable, ductile, and good conductors of heat and electricity. The melting points of the ...

Use patterns within the Periodic Table to predict the relative physical and chemical properties of elements.

IPC.7.B

Science concepts. The student knows that relationships exist between the structure and properties of matter. The student is expected to:

Measuring Light with Wavelength and Frequency

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