Name: electron regions in atomic orbitals
Uploaded: 2020-09-03T13:38:27.000Z
Duration: 2 min 44 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills

High School

Chemistry and Physics

IPC.7

IPC.7.E

Atomic Orbitals

المنطقة الأكثر كثافة في السحابة الإلكترونية حيث من المرجح أن يوجد بهاالإلكترون-تسمى بالمدارات الذرية. شكل المدار الذري يحدده عدد كم الزخم الزاوي،l. لنتذكر أن قيم l تستند إلى رقم الكم الأساسي n و تتراوح قيم l المحتملة من صفر إلى n-1.عندما تكون n أكبر من واحد،توجد عدة مستويات فرعية. كل قيمة من l تقابل احد المدارات s أو p أو d أو f. أقل مدار طاقة هو المدار 1-s.هذا مدار كروي متماثل. وكثافة الاحتمال للمدار 1-s تكشف أن الإلكترون من المرجح أن يتواجد في النواة. ومع ذلك،بالنظر إلى القوى الكهروستاتيكية بين البروتونات والإلكترونات فهذا غير محتمل.ضرب كثافة الاحتمال في حجم الغلاف الكروي الرقيق ذو نصف قطر r هو أكثر تمثيلا. إجمالي احتمال إيجاد إلكترون داخل الغلاف الرقيق على مسافة r من النواة هو دالة التوزيع الإشعاعي. للهيدروجين،فإنّأكبر احتمال للعثور على إلكترون يوجد عند 52.9 بيكومتر من النواة.وهكذا،فإنّشكل المدار الذري 1-s للهيدروجين كروي و له نصف قطر 52.9 بيكومتر. كذلك فإنّالمدارات 2-s و3-s كروية أيضًا. لكنها أكبر ولها عقد.عند العقدة،يكون احتمال العثور على الإلكترون صفرًا. المستويات الرئيسية،مع n يساوي اثنين أو أكثر،تحتوي أيضًا على ثلاثة مدارات p. و تكون على شكل فص مع عقدة في النواة.يتم وصف اتجاههم بقيمة m-l. المدارات الثلاثة p متعامدة مع بعضها البعض. المستويات الأساسية لـ n تساوي ثلاثة أو أكثر و لديها أيضا خمسة مدارات d.المدارات d كشكل ورقة البرسيم لديها أربعة فصوص كثيفة الإلكترونات واثنان من العقيدات العمودية المستوية. يختلف أحد مدارات d قليلاًتحتوي المدارات f على المزيد من الفصوص والعقد. توجد هذه المدارات للمستويات الرئيسية لـ n تساوي أربعة أو أكثر.عندما تتراكب المدارات فوق بعضها البعض،يظهر شكل كروي تقريبًا. هذا هو السبب في أن الذرات يتم تمثيلها بشكل عام على أنها كرات.

المدارات الذرّية

يمثل المستوى الذري المناطق ثلاثية الأبعاد في الذرة حيث يكون للإلكترونات أعلى احتمالية للإقامة فيها. تشير دالة التوزيع الشعاعي إلى الاحتمال الإجمالي لإيجاد إلكترون داخل الحاوية الواقية الرفيعة على مسافة r من النواة. تحتوي المدارات الذرية على أشكال مختلفة يتم تحديدها بواسطةl، وهو رقم مقدار قوة الدفع الزاوي. وغالباً ما يتم رسم المدارات على سطح حدودي، مما يؤدي إلى المناطق الأكثر كثافة في السحابة.  العدد الكمّي للزخم الزاوي هو عدد صحيح قد يأخذ القيم l = 0, 1, 2, …, n – 1. يمكن لمدار بعدد كمّي رئيسي 1 (n = 1) أن يكون له قيمة واحدة فقط هي l (l = 0)، بينما يسمح العدد الكمي الرئيسي 2 (n = 2) بـ l = 0 و l = 1 . تحدد المستويات ذات القيمة نفسها l هيكل فرعي. تسمى المدارات التي تحتوي على l = 0 بالمدارات s وهي تشكل s الأجزاء الفرعية. تتطابق القيمة l = 1 مع مدارات p. بالنسبة إلى n معين، تمثل المدارات p هيكل سفلي (أي 3p إذا كان n = 3). تسمى المدارات التي تحتوي على l = 2 بالمدارات d. المدارات التي تحتوي على l = 3, 4, و 5 هي المدارات f, g, و h. إن المستوى الأدنى للطاقة هو المستوى 1s. هذا مدار متماثل كرويّاً. تعني كثافة الاحتمال (ψ2) لمدار1s أن الإلكترون من المرجح أن يكون في النواة. ومع ذلك، نظراً للقوى الكهروستاتيكية بين البروتونات والإلكترونات، فإن هذا لا يمثل بدقة مكان تواجد الإلكترون. وبدلاً من ذلك، يتم استخدام الدالة وظيفة التوزيع الشعاعي،  وهي عبارة عن رسم للاحتمال الكلي لإيجاد إلكترون في مدار عند نصف قطر معين r توجد دالة التوزيع نصف القطري عن طريق ضرب كثافة الاحتمال في حجم الحاويات الكروية الرفيعة في نصف القطر، r. بالنسبة إلى مدار 1s للهيدروجين، فإن وظيفة التوزيع نصف القطري لها قيمة صفر في النواة، والتي تزيد إلى حد أقصى عند 52.9 بيكومتر قبل أن تتناقص مع زيادة r.توجد مسافات معينة من النواة تكون فيها كثافة احتمال العثور على إلكترون موجود في مدار معين صفراً. بعبارة أخرى، فإن قيمة التموّج ψ هي صفر في هذه المسافة بالنسبة لهذا المدار. تسمى هذه القيمة r العقدة الشعاعية. عدد العقد القطرية في المستوى هو n – l – 1. بالنسبة للمدارات 2s، حيث n = 1، توجد عقدة شعاعية واحدة، بينما تحتوي مدارات 3s على عقدتين شعريتين.  يحتوي كل مستوى رئيسي مع n = 2 أو أكثر على ثلاثة p مدارات. تحتوي المدارات em>p الثلاثة على فصّين مع عقدة تقع في النواة. يتم وصف اتجاه المدارات p في الفضاء بقيمة ml.تكون المدارات الثلاثة p متعامدة بشكل متبادل (متعامدة) على بعضها البعض. تحتوي المدارات p الأعلى (3p, 4p, 5p, وأكثر) على أشكال متشابهة لكنها أكبر في الحجم مع عقد شعاعية إضافية. تحتوي المستويات الرئيسي التي تحتوي على n = 3 أو أكثر على خمسة d مدارات. تتكون أربعة من هذه المدارات من شكل ورقة البرسيم، مع أربعة عقد كثيفة الإلكترون. هناك مستويان عقديّان متعامدان يتقاطعان في النواة. في هذه المستويات العقدية، تكون كثافة الإلكترون صفراً. يختلف شكل أحد المدارات d اختلافاً طفيفاً وله فصّين متّجهين نحو z-المحور مع حلقة دائرية مجوفة الشكل في المستوى xy. تحتوي المستويات الرئيسية التي تحتوي على n = 4 وأكبر على سبعة مدارات f، لها أشكال معقدة. تحتوي هذه المدارات على عقد وفصوص أكثر من المدارات d.<img alt="Figure1" src="https://www.jovecore.com/CDNSource/lessons/983/983Image 1.png" style="width: 700px;" />Figure 1: Representative s, p, d, and f orbitals. تمثل هذه الأشكال المختلفة للمدارات الذرية المناطق ثلاثية الأبعاد التي يحتمل أن يوجد فيها الإلكترون. تشكل جميع المدارات معاً شكلاً كروياً تقريباً، وهذا هو سبب تمثيل الذرات بشكل عام كدوائر. تم اقتباس هذا النص من <a href="https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/6-3-development-of-quantum-theory">Openstax, Chemistry 2e, Section 6.3: Development of Quantum Theory.</a>

يمثل المدار الذري المناطق ثلاثية الأبعاد في الذرة حيث يكون للإلكترون أعلى احتمال للبقاء. التوزيع الشعاعي ...

Education

JoVE Core

Chemistry

الكيمياء

واحد

Electronic Structure of Atoms

البنية الإلكترونية للذرات

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

المصطلحات والمفاهيم الأساسية

electron regions in atomic orbitals

Electron regions in atomic orbitals show where an electron is most likely to be found in an atom. These three-dimensional regions are often drawn as boundary surfaces around the densest part of the cloud.

The shape of an orbital depends on the angular momentum quantum number, l. This value can range from 0 to n - 1, where n is the principal quantum number. For n = 1, only l = 0 is allowed. For n = 2, both l = 0 and l = 1 are allowed.

Orbitals with the same value of l form a subshell. The l = 0 orbitals are s orbitals, and they make up s subshells. The l = 1 orbitals are p orbitals, which form a p subshell such as 3p when n = 3. The l = 2 orbitals are d orbitals. The l = 3, 4, and 5 orbitals are called f, g, and h orbitals.

The lowest-energy orbital is the 1s orbital. It is spherically symmetric. The probability density, ψ², suggests that an electron is most likely found at the nucleus. But this does not fully match electron behavior. The radial distribution function gives the total probability of finding an electron at a distance r from the nucleus. It is found by multiplying the probability density by the volume of thin spherical shells.

For the 1s orbital of hydrogen, the radial distribution function is zero at the nucleus. It rises to a maximum at 52.9 picometers and then decreases as r increases. Some distances from the nucleus have zero probability density for a given orbital. These points are called radial nodes. The number of radial nodes is n - l - 1. A 2s orbital has one radial node, and a 3s orbital has two.

Each principal level with n = 2 or more contains three p orbitals. Each p orbital has two lobes and a node at the nucleus. Their orientation in space is described by m_l. The three p orbitals are mutually perpendicular. Higher p orbitals, such as 3p, 4p, and 5p, have the same general shape but are larger and contain additional radial nodes.

Principal levels with n = 3 or more contain five d orbitals. Four of them have a cloverleaf shape with four electron-dense lobes. They also have two perpendicular nodal planes that meet at the nucleus. The fifth d orbital has two lobes along the z-axis and a donut-shaped ring in the xy plane.

Principal levels with n = 4 and greater contain seven f orbitals. These orbitals have complex shapes with more nodes and lobes than d orbitals. Together, s, p, d, and f orbitals help explain why atoms are often drawn as spheres, even though the electron regions inside them have distinct shapes.

Electron Regions in Atomic Orbitals

the wave nature of light

Measuring Light with Wavelength and Frequency

Light can be described as an electromagnetic wave, and its behavior helps explain many patterns seen in science. For centuries, scientists have tried to understand light. Newton used lenses and prisms to show that white light is made of the colors of the rainbow mixed together. He explained light as tiny particles moving at high speed. Other scientists, including Christiaan Huygens, showed that reflection and refraction could also be explained by treating light as a wave. At the time, people...

the electromagnetic spectrum

Electromagnetic Waves: Uses Across the Spectrum

The electromagnetic spectrum includes all electromagnetic radiation arranged by frequency and wavelength. Visible light is only a small part of it, and each color of visible light has its own frequency and wavelength. Different parts of the spectrum also use different units. Radio waves are usually measured in MHz, while the visible range is often measured in nm or angstroms. The spectrum is organized from radio waves to gamma rays as frequency increases and wavelength decreases. Radio waves...

interference and diffraction

Wave Patterns from Light and Slits

Light can form wave patterns through interference and diffraction. When two electromagnetic waves meet with their peaks and troughs lined up, they combine into a larger wave. This is constructive interference, and the waves are in phase. When a peak of one wave meets a trough of the other, the waves reduce each other. This is destructive interference, and the result has a much lower amplitude. Diffraction is another wave behavior. When light passes through a slit that is about the same size as...

photoelectric effect

Why Light Ejects Electrons from Metals

Light can eject electrons from a metal surface when it has the right frequency. This process is called the photoelectric effect. Each metal has its own threshold frequency, which is the minimum light frequency needed to free electrons. Light below the threshold frequency cannot cause emission, even if it is very bright. When the light frequency is above the threshold, electrons are ejected. In that case, the number of electrons released is directly proportional to the intensity, or brightness,...

the bohr model

Bohr’s Quantized Atomic Orbits

Bohr’s quantized atomic orbits explain why hydrogen atoms can stay stable. Early in the twentieth century, Ernest Rutherford and his colleagues described atoms as tiny dense nuclei with lighter electrons moving around them. This picture was called the planetary model because it compared the atom to a miniature solar system, with electrons orbiting the nucleus like planets around the sun. The simplest atom is hydrogen. It has one proton in the nucleus and one electron moving around it. In the...

emission spectra

Line Spectra from Heated Gases

Line spectra are produced when heated gases give off light at specific wavelengths. In contrast, hot solids, liquids, or condensed gases radiate excess energy as a continuous spectrum. That spectrum contains an unbroken range of wavelengths. A gas at low partial pressure can produce a line spectrum when it is excited by an electric current or heated. Fluorescent light bulbs and neon signs work in this way. Each element has its own characteristic set of lines, and molecules can also produce...

the de broglie wavelength

Electron Waves and Standing Orbits

Electron waves and standing orbits explain how tiny particles can behave like waves. Large objects in the macroscopic world, like a billiard ball on a table, follow classical physics. A ball keeps moving in a straight line unless it hits another ball or a force such as friction acts on it. It also has a well-defined position, velocity, and momentum, where momentum is mass times velocity. Waves behave differently from macroscopic particles. When waves interact, they can form interference...

the uncertainty principle

Electron Position and Momentum Limits

Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle sets a limit on how precisely we can know an electron’s position and momentum at the same time. Momentum is the motion of a particle, and the two measurements affect each other. If the momentum is known more accurately, the position becomes less certain, and the reverse is also true. Heisenberg described this limit with an equation that uses Planck’s constant. The equation shows the smallest possible uncertainty for position and momentum together. It explains...

the quantum-mechanical model of an atom

Electron Orbitals in Quantum Mechanics

Quantum mechanics explains how electrons behave in atoms using waves and probability. Erwin Schrödinger built on de Broglie’s idea that an electron in hydrogen could act like a circular standing wave instead of moving in fixed circular paths. He then derived the Schrödinger equation, which became a major step in modern atomic theory. When Schrödinger applied his equation to hydrogen-like atoms, it matched Bohr’s energy expression and the Rydberg formula for hydrogen spectra. He described...

quantum numbers

Electron Orbitals and Spin

Electron orbitals are described by quantum numbers that show where an electron is most likely to be found around the nucleus. These numbers come from the quantum mechanical model, which is based on solutions of the Schrödinger equation. They also help explain why electron energy comes in set values instead of changing smoothly. The principal quantum number, n, labels the energy level. It can be 1, 2, 3, and so on, and higher n values usually mean higher electron energy. This number also tells...

atomic orbitals

Electron regions in atomic orbitals show where an electron is most likely to be found in an atom. These three-dimensional regions are often drawn as boundary surfaces around the densest part of the cloud. The shape of an orbital depends on the angular momentum quantum number, l. This value can range from 0 to n - 1, where n is the principal quantum number. For n = 1, only l = 0 is allowed. For n = 2, both l = 0 and l = 1 are allowed. Orbitals with the same value of l form a subshell. The l =...

the pauli exclusion principle

Electron Spin and Orbital Pairing

Electron spin and orbital pairing explain why only two electrons can fit in one atomic orbital. Electron configuration describes how electrons are arranged in an atom’s orbitals. It is written with three parts: the principal quantum number, n, the orbital type, or subshell, and a superscript that shows how many electrons are in that subshell. For example, 2p4 means four electrons in a p subshell with n = 2, and 3d8 means eight electrons in a d subshell with n = 3. The three quantum numbers...

the energies of atomic orbitals

Shielding and Orbital Penetration

Shielding and orbital penetration help explain why electrons in an atom have different energies. Electrons are attracted to the positive nucleus, but they also repel one another in atoms with more than one electron. The strength of these forces depends on the charge and the distance between the particles. Opposite charges attract, like charges repel, and the force gets weaker as the particles move farther apart. An electron that stays closer to the nucleus is held more tightly. That means...

the aufbau principle and hund's rule

Electron Filling Order in Atomic Orbitals

Electron filling order in atomic orbitals follows the aufbau principle and Hund's rule. To write an electron configuration, we build atoms in order of atomic number. Starting with hydrogen and moving across the periods of the periodic table, one proton is added to the nucleus and one electron is placed into the correct subshell. This process describes the ground-state electron configurations of the elements. The aufbau principle comes from the German word aufbau, which means "to build up." It...

electron configuration of multielectron atoms

electron-configuration-of-multielectron-atoms

Valence Electrons and Noble Gas Shorthand

Valence electrons and noble gas shorthand help show how electrons are arranged in multielectron atoms. Sodium, the alkali metal with atomic number 11, has one more electron than neon. That extra electron goes into the lowest-energy subshell available, the 3s orbital, so sodium has the configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1. Electrons in the outermost shell, where n is highest, are called valence electrons. Electrons in the inner shells are called core electrons. Because core electrons often match a...

key terms and concepts

Explore electron regions in atomic orbitals, including s, p, d, and f shapes, radial nodes, and the radial distribution function for high school chemistry.

Electron Regions in Atomic Orbitals | JoVE K12

chemistry

JoVE Core Chemistry brings general chemistry concepts to life using concise and easy-to-understand animated video lessons. Plus, in the scientist-in-action videos, we demonstrate classical and original research experiments performed in today's laboratories worldwide.

north-carolina-k-12-science-standard-course-of-study

NC K-12 Science Standard Course of Study

9-12

Matter and its Interactions

PS.Chm.1.3

ohios-learning-standards-and-model-curriculum

Ohio’s Learning Standards and Model Curriculum

Structure And Properties Of Matter

Atomic structure

Tennessee Academic Standards

Matter and Its Interactions

CHEM1.PS1.12

Virginia  Standards of Learning

HIgh School

CH.2

CH.2.e

Physical Science

PS.2

PS.2.a

Arizona Science Standards

HS.P1

HS.P1U1.1

CHEM.6

CHEM.6.B

Alabama Course of Study Science

9-12.C.1.1.c

Next Generation Science Standards

HS-PS1-1

Florida Department of Education

SC.912.P.8

SC.912.P.8.5

SC.912.P.10

SC.912.P.10.9

IPC.7.D

new-york-state-science-learning-standards

New York State Science Learning Standards

HS. Chemical Reactions

HS-PS1-7.

Georgia Standards of Excellence

SC1.

electron-configuration-and-chemical-properties

Electron Configuration and Chemical Properties

The Atomic Theory of Matter

The earliest recorded discussion of the basic structure of matter comes from ancient Greek philosophers. Leucippus and Democritus argued that all matter ...

Subatomic Particles

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Elements: Chemical Symbols and Isotopes

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Ions and Ionic Charges

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The Periodic Table

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Atomic Mass

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Molar Mass

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Periodic Classification of the Elements

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Types of Chemical Bonds

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Ionic Bonding and Electron Transfer

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The Born-Haber Cycle

Lattice Energy&#xA0;

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trends-in-lattice-energy-ion-size-and-charge

Trends in Lattice Energy: Ion Size and Charge

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Covalent Bonding and Lewis Structures

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Electronegativity

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Electronegativity values of ...

bond-polarity-dipole-moment-and-percent-ionic-character

Bond Polarity, Dipole Moment, and Percent Ionic Character

Bond Polarity

The absolute value of the difference in electronegativity (&Delta;EN) of two bonded atoms provides a rough measure of the polarity to be ...

lewis-structures-of-molecular-compounds-and-polyatomic-ions

Lewis Structures of Molecular Compounds and Polyatomic Ions

To draw Lewis structures for complicated molecules and molecular ions, it is helpful to follow a step-by-step procedure as outlined:


	Determine the ...

Bond Energies and Bond Lengths

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Bonding in Metals

Metallic bonds are formed between two metal atoms. A simplified model to describe metallic bonding has been developed by Paul Dr&#xFC;de called the ...

Model basic atomic structure and relate an element's atomic structure to its bonding, reactivity, and placement on the Periodic Table.

IPC.7.A

physical-and-chemical-properties-of-matter

Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter

The characteristics that enable us to distinguish one substance from another are called properties.

Physical Properties of Matter

A physical property is ...

atomic-radii-and-effective-nuclear-charge

Atomic Radii and Effective Nuclear Charge

The elements in groups of the periodic table exhibit similar chemical behavior. This similarity occurs because the members of a group have the same number ...

Ionic Radii

Ionic radius is the measure used to describe the size of an ion. A cation always has fewer electrons and the same number of protons as the parent atom; it ...

Ionization Energy

The amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from a gaseous atom in its ground state is called its first ionization energy ...

Electron Affinity

The electron affinity (EA) is the energy change for adding an electron to a gaseous atom to form an anion (negative ion).



This process can be either ...

Alkali Metals

Group 1 elements are soft and shiny metallic solids. They are malleable, ductile, and good conductors of heat and electricity. The melting points of the ...

Halogens

Group 17 elements, known as halogens, are nonmetals. At room temperature, fluorine and chlorine are gases, bromine is a liquid, and iodine a solid. ...

Noble Gases


The elements in group 18 are noble gases (helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon). They earned the name &ldquo;noble&rdquo; because they were ...

Use patterns within the Periodic Table to predict the relative physical and chemical properties of elements.

IPC.7.B

Classifying Matter by State

Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes it undergoes. Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Matter is all around us; the air, ...

Classifying Matter by Composition

Matter: Pure Substances and Mixtures
According to its composition, the matter can be classified into two broad categories &mdash; pure substances and ...

Phase Transitions

Whether solid, liquid, or gas, a substance&#39;s state depends on the order and arrangement of its particles (atoms, molecules, or ions). Particles in the ...

phase-transitions-vaporization-and-condensation

Phase Transitions: Vaporization and Condensation

The physical form of a substance changes on changing its temperature. For example, raising the temperature of a liquid causes the liquid to vaporize ...

Phase Transitions: Melting and Freezing

Heating a crystalline solid increases the average energy of its atoms, molecules, or ions, and the solid gets hotter. At some point, the added energy ...

phase-transitions-sublimation-and-deposition

Phase Transitions: Sublimation and Deposition

Some solids can transition directly into the gaseous state, bypassing the liquid state, via a process known as sublimation. At room temperature and ...

Melting Points

Melting Points in Organic Chemistry
The melting point of a compound is the temperature at which the solid phase transitions into the liquid phase at a ...

Boiling Points

Source: Lara Al Hariri at the University of Massachusetts Amherst, MA, USA

	Preparation of the LaboratoryExpand
	Here, we show the laboratory preparation ...

Explain how physical and chemical properties of substances are related to their usage in everyday life such as in sunscreen, cookware, industrial applications, and fuels.

IPC.7.C

Emission Spectra

When solids, liquids, or condensed gases are heated sufficiently, they radiate some of the excess energy as light. Photons produced in this manner have a ...

Metal Flame Emission

Metal Flame Emission
Flame testing is an analytical technique where a sample is placed in a flame, and the characteristic flame color is used to identify ...

An atomic orbital represents the three-dimensional regions in an atom where an electron has the highest probability to reside. The radial distribution ...

Explain how electrons can transition from a high energy level to a low energy state, emitting photons at different frequencies for different energy transitions.

Science concepts. The student knows that relationships exist between the structure and properties of matter. The student is expected to:

Electron Regions in Atomic Orbitals

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