Name: ionization energy trends in the periodic table
Uploaded: 2020-09-03T13:38:28.000Z
Duration: 3 min 12 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

north-carolina-k-12-science-standard-course-of-study

NC K-12 Science Standard Course of Study

9-12

Chemistry

Matter and its Interactions

PS.Chm.2.2

Ionization Energy

السلوك الكيميائي للذرات والأيونات يتأثر بشكل كبير بمدى سهولة أو صعوبة إزالة الإكترونات منها،خاصة الإلكترونات الخارجية التي تشارك في الرابطة الكيميائية وتشكيلها. الطاقة المطلوبة لإزالة الإلكترون،من ذرة غازية في حالتها الأساسية،تسمى طاقة التأين الأولى ووحدتها هي الكيلوجول لكل مول. الطاقة المطلوبة لإزالة الإلكترون التالي تسمى طاقة التأين الثانية،وهكذا.بالانتقال إلى أسفل العمود،تقل طاقات التأين. لنتذكر أن أعلى رقم كم رئيسي لإلكترونات التكافؤ،تزداد أسفل العمود مما يؤدي إلى أحجام ذرية أكبر. وبالتالي،كلما كانت الإلكترونات أبعد،كان من الأسهل إزالتها.لعناصر المجموعة الرئيسية،طاقة تأين تزيد خلال فترة. السبب يكمن في العدد الذري المتزايد،حيث تتعرض إلكترونات التكافؤ لشحنة نووية فعالة أعلى،مما يجعل إزالة الإلكترونات الخارجية أكثر صعوبة. هذا ما يفسر سبب ارتفاع طاقة تأين الكلور عن الصوديوم،على سبيل المثال.بشكل عام،طاقة التأين هي الأدنى لمعدن قلوي وترتفع إلى قمتها مع كل غاز نبيل. تظهر المعادن الانتقالية زيادة طفيفة في طاقة التأين خلال فترة،و حتى عناصر f-block تظهر تغييرًا أقل. ولكن هناك بعض الاستثناءات للنظر فيها.يحتوي البورون على طاقة تأين أصغر من طاقة البريليوم،على الرغم من أنه أبعد لجهة اليمين في الجدول الدوري. يحتوي البريليوم على إلكترونات 2s منخفضة الطاقة،بينما البورون لديه طاقة أعلى 2p للإلكترون،مما يجعل إزالته بقوة،أكثر ملاءمة. استثناء آخر هو الأكسجين،والذي لديه طاقة تأين أولية أقل من النيتروجين.مقارنة بالنيتروجين،يحتوي الأكسجين على أربعة إلكترونات،وإزالة إلكترون واحد يزيل تنافر الإلكترون-الكترون. وبالتالي،يتطلب التأين طاقة أقل. لوحظت هذه الاستثناءات في الفترات المتتالية أيضًا.إزالة الإلكترون من الكاتيونات أكثر صعوبة من الذرات المحايدة. عموما،طاقات التأين المتتالية،تزيد للعناصر. لنضع في اعتبارنا البوتاسيوم.طاقة التأين الثانية أعلى بكثير،لأنها تنطوي على إزالة إلكترون اساسي من أيون بتكوين غاز نبيل. وبالمثل،بالنسبة للكالسيوم،هناك زيادة كبيرة من طاقة التأين الثانية إلى الثالثة،لإزالة إلكترون اساسي من كاتيون بتكوين غاز نبيل.

طاقة التأيّن

إن كمية الطاقة المطلوبة لإزالة الإلكترون الأقلّ تقيّداً من ذرة في حالتها الغازية في حالته الأرضية تسمّى بطاقة التأين الأولى (IE1).إن طاقة التأين الأولى لعنصر، X، هي الطاقة المطلوبة لتكوين كاتيون بشحنة +1: <img alt="Eq1" src="https://www.jovecore.com/CDNSource/lessons/1049/1049_Equations-01.png" style="height: 40px;" />تسمى الطاقة المطلوبة لإزالة ثاني إلكترون أقل تقيّداً بطاقة التأين الثانية (IE2). <img alt="Eq2" src="https://www.jovecore.com/CDNSource/lessons/1049/1049_Equations-02.png" style="height: 40px;" />إن الطاقة المطلوبة لإزالة الإلكترون الثالث هي طاقة التأين الثالثة، وهكذا دواليك. إن الطاقة مطلوبة دائماً لإزالة الإلكترونات من الذرات أو الأيونات، لذا فإن عمليات التأين ماصة للحرارة وقيم IE تكون دائماً موجبة. بالنسبة للذرات الأكبر، يقع الإلكترون الأقل تقيداً بعيداً عن النواة، لذا فمن الأسهل إزالته. وبالتالي، مع زيادة الحجم (نصف القطر الذري)، ينبغي أن تقل طاقة التأين.  وفي مجموعة دورية، يزداد IE1 بشكل عام مع زيادة Z. بالنزول في المجموعة، قيمة IE1 بشكل عام تقل مع زيادة Z. وهناك بعض الانحرافات المنهجية عن هذه النزعة. لاحظ أن طاقة التأين للبورون (العدد الذري 5) أقل من طاقة البريليوم (العدد الذري 4) على الرغم من أن الشحنة النووية للبورون أكبر ببروتون واحد. يمكن تفسير ذلك لأن طاقة الحاويات الفرعية تزداد بزيادة l، بسبب الاختراق والدروع. في أي غلاف، تكون إلكترونات s أقل في الطاقة من إلكترونات p. وهذا يعني أن الإلكترون s أصعب في إزالته من الذرة من الإلكترون p في نفس الغلاف الواقي. إن الإلكترون الذي يتم إزالته أثناء تأين البريليوم ([He]2s2) هو إلكترون s، بينما الإلكترون الذي تمت إزالته أثناء تأين البورون ([He]2s22p1) هو إلكترون p؛ وينتج عن ذلك انخفاض طاقة التأين الأولى للبورون، على الرغم من أن شحنه النووي أكبر بواسطة بروتون واحد. وعلى هذا فإننا نشهد انحرافاً طفيفاً عن الاتجاه المتوقع في كل مرة يبدأ فيها غلاف فرعي جديد. يحدث انحراف آخر عندما تصبح المدارات ممتلئة بأكثر من نصف. طاقة التأين الأولى للأكسجين أقل قليلاً من تلك بالنسبة للنيتروجين، على الرغم من النزعة في زيادة قيم IE1 عبر مجموعة دورية. بالنسبة إلى الأكسجين، فإن إزالة إلكترون واحد سوف يزيل التنافر الإلكتروني الناتج عن اقتران الإلكترونات في المدار 2p وينتج عنه مستوى نصف مملوء (والذي يكون مفضّلاً بالنسبة للطاقة). وتحدث تغيرات مماثلة في الفترات التالية. إن إزالة الإلكترون من عملية الأيون أصعب من إزالة إلكترون من ذرة محايدة بسبب الجاذبية الكهروستاتيكية الأكبر للإلكترونات. وعلى نحو مماثل، فإن إزالة إلكترون من كاتيون ما بشحنة موجبة أعلى أصعب من إزالة إلكترون من أيون بشحنة أقل. وبالتالي فإن طاقات التأين المتعاقبة لعنصر واحد تتزايد دوماً. وكما يتبين من الجدول 1، هناك زيادة كبيرة في طاقات التأين لكل عنصر. وتتوافق هذه القفزة مع إزالة الإلكترونات الأساسية، والتي يصعب إزالتها من إلكترونات التكافؤ. على سبيل المثال، لكلٍّ من Sc وGa ثلاثة إلكترونات تكافؤ، لذا فإن الزيادة السريعة في طاقة التأين تحدث بعد التأين الثالث. 
 الجدول 1: طاقات تأين متعاقبة لعناصر مختارة (كيلوجول/مول) <table style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody style="border: 1px solid black;"><tr><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">Element</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">IE1</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">IE2</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">IE3</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">IE4</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">IE5</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">IE6</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">IE7</td></tr><tr><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">K</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">418.8</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">3051.8</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">4419.6</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">5876.9</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">7975.5</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">9590.6</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">11343</td></tr><tr><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">Ca</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">589.8</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">1145.4</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">4912.4</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">6490.6</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">8153.0</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">10495.7</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">12272.9</td></tr><tr><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">Sc</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">633.1</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">1235.0</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">2388.7</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">7090.6</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">8842.9</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">10679.0</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">13315.0</td></tr><tr><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">Ga</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">578.8</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">1979.4</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">2964.6</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">6180</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">8298.7</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">10873.9</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">13594.8</td></tr><tr>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">Ge</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">762.2</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">1537.5</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">3302.1</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">4410.6</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">9021.4</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">Not available</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">Not available</td></tr><tr><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">As</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">944.5</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">1793.6</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">2735.5</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">4836.8</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">6042.9</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">12311.5</td><td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">Not available</td></tr></tbody></table>هذا النص مقتبس من <a href="https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/6-5-periodic-variations-in-element-properties">OpenStax Chemistry 2e, Section 6.5: Periodic Variations in Element Properties.</a>

تسمى كمية الطاقة المطلوبة لإزالة الإلكترون الأكثر ارتباطا من الذرة الغازية في حالتها الأرضية بأول طاقة تأين لها ...

Education

JoVE Core

الكيمياء

واحد

Periodic Properties of the Elements

الخصائص الدورية للعناصر

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

المصطلحات والمفاهيم الأساسية

ionization energy trends in the periodic table

Ionization energy is the energy needed to remove an electron from a gaseous atom or ion in its ground state. The first ionization energy, or IE1, removes the most loosely bound electron and forms a 1+ cation. The second ionization energy, IE2, removes the next electron, and each later ionization energy removes another electron from the atom or ion.

Ionization always requires energy, so these processes are endothermic. That means ionization energy values are always positive. In general, larger atoms have lower ionization energy because their outermost electrons are farther from the nucleus and easier to remove.

Across a period, first ionization energy generally increases as atomic number increases. Down a group, first ionization energy generally decreases as atomic number increases. The trend is useful, but there are some clear exceptions.

One exception appears when a new subshell begins. Boron has a lower first ionization energy than beryllium, even though boron has one more proton. This happens because s electrons are lower in energy than p electrons in the same shell, so the s electron in beryllium is harder to remove than the p electron in boron. The effect comes from penetration and shielding.

Another exception appears when a p subshell becomes more than half filled. Oxygen has a slightly lower first ionization energy than nitrogen. Removing one electron from oxygen reduces electron-electron repulsion in the 2p orbital and gives a more stable half-filled orbital.

Successive ionization energies always increase. It is harder to remove an electron from a cation than from a neutral atom because the positive charge pulls more strongly on the remaining electrons. It is even harder to remove an electron from a cation with a higher positive charge.

The large jump in successive ionization energies shows when core electrons begin to be removed. Core electrons are harder to remove than valence electrons. For example, scandium and gallium both have three valence electrons, so the sharp rise in ionization energy comes after the third ionization. The table of values for K, Ca, Sc, Ga, Ge, and As shows this pattern clearly.

Ionization Energy Trends in the Periodic Table

periodic classification of the elements

How Valence Electrons Shape the Periodic Table

The periodic table organizes elements by increasing atomic number, and it also shows why elements in the same group behave alike. As the electron configurations are placed into the table, a repeating pattern appears in the outer shells of atoms. These outer electrons are called valence electrons, and they play the biggest role in chemical reactions. They are the highest-energy electrons in an atom, so they are easier to lose or share than core electrons. Valence electrons also help determine...

ionization energy

Ionization energy is the energy needed to remove an electron from a gaseous atom or ion in its ground state. The first ionization energy, or IE1, removes the most loosely bound electron and forms a 1+ cation. The second ionization energy, IE2, removes the next electron, and each later ionization energy removes another electron from the atom or ion. Ionization always requires energy, so these processes are endothermic. That means ionization energy values are always positive. In general, larger...

atomic radii and effective nuclear charge

atomic-radii-and-effective-nuclear-charge

Periodic Trends in Atomic Size

Periodic trends in atomic size help explain why atoms get larger or smaller across the periodic table. Elements in the same group show similar chemical behavior because they have the same number and arrangement of valence electrons. Across a period, each new element adds one proton to the nucleus and one electron to the valence shell. Down a group, the number of valence electrons stays the same, but the principal quantum number increases by one. Atomic radius is not easy to define with perfect...

ionic radii

How Ionic Charge Changes Ion Size

Ionic radius describes the size of an ion. It changes when an atom gains or loses electrons. Cations are positive ions with fewer electrons than the parent atom, and they are smaller than the atoms they come from. Aluminum shows this pattern clearly. A neutral aluminum atom has a covalent radius of 118 pm, while Al3+ has an ionic radius of 68 pm. When electrons are removed from the outer valence shell, the remaining core electrons feel a stronger effective nuclear charge, or Zeff. That pull...

electron affinity

Electron Affinity Trends on the Periodic Table

Electron affinity is the energy change that happens when a gaseous atom gains an electron and becomes a negative ion, or anion. For many elements, this process releases energy, so the electron affinity value is negative. For some elements, energy must be added instead, so the value is positive. Electron affinity also applies when more than one electron is added. The second electron affinity is the energy change for adding an electron to an anion to make a 2− ion. Later electron affinities...

alkali metals

Alkali Metals: Reactivity Trends

Alkali metals are Group 1 elements with one valence electron. They are soft, shiny metallic solids that are malleable, ductile, and good conductors of heat and electricity. Their melting points are unusually low for metals and drop as you move down the group. Density generally increases down the group, except for potassium. The trend in atomic size helps explain their behavior. Moving from lithium to cesium, each element has a higher principal quantum number, so the outer electron is farther...

halogens

Halogens: Trends and Reactions

Halogens are Group 17 nonmetals that show clear trends in structure and reactivity. At room temperature, fluorine and chlorine are gases, bromine is a liquid, and iodine is a solid. Astatine is highly unstable and radioactive, so most of its properties are still unknown because it has a very short half-life. Tennessine is a synthetic element that is also predicted to belong to this group. These elements do not usually exist as single atoms. Instead, they form diatomic molecules, which means...

noble gases

Noble Gases: Sources, Uses, and Reactions

Noble gases are the group 18 elements helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon. They were called “noble” because they were once thought to be nonreactive. That idea changed in 1962, when Dr. Neil Bartlett at the University of British Columbia showed that this assumption was not fully correct. These gases occur in very small amounts in the atmosphere. Some natural gas contains 1–2% helium by mass. Helium is separated from natural gas by removing the condensable components, which leaves...

key terms and concepts

Explore first and successive ionization energy, periodic trends, and key exceptions such as boron, oxygen, and the jump to core electrons.

Ionization Energy Trends in the Periodic Table | JoVE K12

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Periodic Table Trends: Atomic Radii, Ionization, and Electronegativity

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Protons and neutrons, collectively called nucleons, are packed together tightly in a nucleus. With a radius of about 10&#8722;15 meters, a nucleus is ...

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Radioactivity is a spontaneous disintegration of an unstable nuclide and is a random process, as all the nuclei in the sample do not decay simultaneously. ...

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Many heavier elements with smaller binding energies per nucleon can decompose into more stable elements that have intermediate mass numbers and larger ...

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Use models to compare nuclear reactions including alpha decay, beta decay and gamma decay; nuclear fusion and nuclear fission.

PS.Chm.1.2

Atomic Orbitals

An atomic orbital represents the three-dimensional regions in an atom where an electron has the highest probability to reside. The radial distribution ...

The Pauli Exclusion Principle

The arrangement of electrons in the orbitals of an atom is called its electron configuration. We describe an electron configuration with a symbol that ...

The Energies of Atomic Orbitals

In an atom, the negatively charged electrons are attracted to the positively charged nucleus. In a multielectron atom, electron-electron repulsions are ...

The Aufbau Principle and Hund's Rule

To determine the electron configuration for any particular atom, we can build the structures in the order of atomic numbers. Beginning with hydrogen, and ...

electron-configuration-of-multielectron-atoms

Electron Configuration of Multielectron Atoms

The alkali metal sodium (atomic number 11) has one more electron than the neon atom. This electron must go into the lowest-energy subshell available, the ...

Use models to explain how electrons are distributed in atoms.

PS.Chm.1.3

Periodic Classification of the Elements

The periodic table arranges atoms based on increasing atomic number so that elements with the same chemical properties recur periodically. When their ...

The Periodic Table

As early chemists discovered more elements, they realized that various elements could be grouped by their similar chemical behaviors. One such grouping ...

Atomic Mass

Atoms &mdash; and the protons, neutrons, and electrons that compose them &mdash; are extremely small. For example, a carbon atom weighs less than 2 ...

Molar Mass

The identity of a substance is defined not only by the types of atoms or ions it contains but by the quantity of each type of atom or ion. For example, ...

Use the Periodic Table as a model to predict the relative properties of elements based on the pattern of valence electrons in the outermost energy levels of atoms.

PS.Chm.2.1

Atomic Radii and Effective Nuclear Charge

The elements in groups of the periodic table exhibit similar chemical behavior. This similarity occurs because the members of a group have the same number ...

Ionic Radii

Ionic radius is the measure used to describe the size of an ion. A cation always has fewer electrons and the same number of protons as the parent atom; it ...

The amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from a gaseous atom in its ground state is called its first ionization energy ...

Electron Affinity

The electron affinity (EA) is the energy change for adding an electron to a gaseous atom to form an anion (negative ion).



This process can be either ...

Construct an explanation to infer the atomic size, reactivity, electronegativity, and ionization energy of an element based on its position in the Periodic Table.

Types of Chemical Bonds

Chemical bonding theories were pioneered by American chemist Gilbert&#xA0;N. Lewis. He developed a model called the Lewis model to explain the type and ...

Lewis Symbols and the Octet Rule

Chemical bonds are complex interactions between two or more atoms or ions, which reduce the potential energy of the molecule. Gilbert N. Lewis developed a ...

Ionic Bonding and Electron Transfer

Ions are atoms or molecules bearing an electrical charge. A cation (a positive ion) forms when a neutral atom loses one or more electrons from its valence ...

The Born-Haber Cycle

Lattice Energy&#xA0;

An ionic compound is stable because of the electrostatic attraction between its positive and negative ions. The lattice energy of a ...

trends-in-lattice-energy-ion-size-and-charge

Trends in Lattice Energy: Ion Size and Charge

An ionic compound is stable because of the electrostatic attraction between its positive and negative ions. The lattice energy of a compound is a measure ...

Covalent Bonding and Lewis Structures

Compared to ionic bonds, which results from the transfer of electrons between metallic and nonmetallic atoms, covalent bonds result from the mutual ...

Electronegativity

Whether a bond is nonpolar or polar covalent is determined by a property of the bonding atoms called electronegativity.&#xA0;

Electronegativity values of ...

bond-polarity-dipole-moment-and-percent-ionic-character

Bond Polarity, Dipole Moment, and Percent Ionic Character

Bond Polarity

The absolute value of the difference in electronegativity (&Delta;EN) of two bonded atoms provides a rough measure of the polarity to be ...

Analyze and interpret data to explain the mechanisms and properties of the two main types of intramolecular (ionic and covalent) bonds.

PS.Chm.3.1

Analyze the structure of atoms and isotopes.

Ionization Energy Trends in the Periodic Table

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