Name: how bonding affects acid strength
Uploaded: 2020-09-24T15:06:51.000Z
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PS.Chm.6.3

Acid Strength and Molecular Structure

حمض الهيدروكلوريك من الأحماض القوية،بينما حمض الهيدروفلوريك من الأحماض الضعيفة. لكن ما الذي يحدد قوتهما؟قوة الأحماض الهيدروجينية،المكونة من عنصرين فقط،تعتمد على طاقة الرابطة وقطبيتها. وإذا كانت طاقة الرابطة في حمض ما أعلى،تكون الرابطة أقوى وبالتالي يكون الحمض أضعف.بمقارنة الأحماض ضمن مجموعة،يكون تحطيم الرابطة في حمض ضعيف،كحمض الهيدروفلوريك أصعب،لذا تضعف احتمالية أن يمنح الحمض بروتونات. وعلى العكس،الحمض الذي طاقة رابطته أقل تكون الرابطة فيه أضعف وبالتالي يكون الحمض أقوى. على سبيل المثال،الرابطة في حمض قوي كحمض الهيدروكلوريك،تتحطم بسهولة أكبر ويمنح بروتونات بشكل أسرع من حمض الهيدروفلوريك.رابطة كتلك التي في حمض الهيدروكلوريك،تكون قطبية،عندما تكون السالبية الكهربائية لإحدى الذرات أعلى منها للذرة الأخرى. يمكن للمركب أن يؤدي دور الحمض،حين تكون السالبية الكهربائية للذرة المرتبطة بالهيدروجين أعلى من سالبية الهيدروجين. ستكون للذرة شحنة سالبة جزئية،تسمح للهيدروجين بامتلاك شحنة موجبة جزئية،يمكن إطلاقها على شكل بروتون.حين تكون قطبية الحمض أعلى،تكون رابطته أضعف وبالتالي يكون حمضًا أقوى. بمقارنة المركبات في فترة زمنية،فإن حمض الهيدروكلوريك أقوى من كبريتيد الهيدروجين،لأن السالبية الكهربائية للكلور أعلى منها للكبريت وبالتالي،فإنه يطلق البروتونات بسهولة أكثر. إذا كان سالبية الهيدروجين،مساوية أو أعلى منها في الذرة الأخرى،لا يستطيع ذلك الجزيء أن يمنح بروتونات وبالتالي لا يستطيع أن يؤدي دور الحمض.الأحماض الأكسجينية،التي تكون فيها OH مرتبطة بذرة ثالثة،سالبيتها الكهربائية أعلى من الهيدروجين. تعتمد قوة الحمض الأكسجيني على السالبية الكهربائية وعدد ذرات الأكسجين المرتبطة بالذرة الثالثة. كلما ارتفعت السالبية الكهربائية للذرة،زادت قدرتها على الاستقطاب،مما يضعف الرابطة بين الأكسجين والهيدروجين.إذا كانت الذرة المركزية مرتبطة بذرات أكسجين إضافية،فإنها تزيد من قطبية الرابطة بين الأكسجين والهيدروجين. على سبيل المثال،حمض البيركلوريك،الذي فيه ثلاث ذرات أكسجين إضافية،أقوى من حمض الكلوريك الذي فيه ذرّتي أكسجين إضافيتين. وفي المقابل فإن حمض الكلوريك أقوى من حمض الكلوروز،الذي فيه ذرة أكسجين إضافية واحدة فقط؛وأقوى من حمض الهيبوكلوروز،الذي لا توجد فيه ذرات أكسجين إضافية.الأحماض الكربوكسيلية،أحماض ضعيفة تحتوي على مجموعة كربوكسيل. ذرة الأكسجين الثانية تجعل الرابطة بين الأكسجين والهيدروجين أكثر قطبية،وبالتالي تسمح للجزيء بمنح بروتون. حمض الخليك،وحمض الفورميك مثالين على الأحماض الكربوكسيلية.

قوة الحمض والبنية الجزيئية

الأحماض والقواعد الثنائية في حالة عدم وجود أي تأثير تسوية ، تزداد القوة الحمضية للمركبات الثنائية للهيدروجين مع اللافلزات (A) مع انخفاض قوة رابطة H-A أسفل مجموعة في الجدول الدوري. بالنسبة للمجموعة 17 ، يكون ترتيب زيادة الحموضة هو HF & # 60 ؛ HCl & # 60 ؛ HBr & # 60 ؛ أهلا. وبالمثل ، بالنسبة للمجموعة 16 ، يكون ترتيب زيادة مقاومة الحمض هو H 2 O & # 60؛ H 2 S & # 60 ؛ H 2 Se & # 60؛ H 2 Te. عبر صف في الجدول الدوري ، تزداد القوة الحمضية لمركبات الهيدروجين الثنائية مع زيادة السالبية الكهربية للذرة اللافلزية لأن قطبية رابطة HA تزداد. وبالتالي ، فإن ترتيب زيادة الحموضة (لإزالة بروتون واحد) عبر الصف الثاني هو CH 4 & # 60؛ NH 3 & # 60 ؛ H 2 O & # 60؛ HF. عبر الصف الثالث ، يكون SiH 4 & # 60؛ PH 3 & # 60 ؛ H 2 S & # 60 ؛ حمض الهيدروكلوريك الأحماض والقواعد الثلاثية يمكن تكوين المركبات الثلاثية المكونة من الهيدروجين والأكسجين وبعض العناصر الثالثة (& # 8220 ؛ E & # 8221 ؛) كما هو موضح في الصورة أدناه. في هذه المركبات ، ترتبط ذرة E المركزية بواحدة أو أكثر من ذرات O ، وترتبط إحدى ذرات O على الأقل أيضًا بذرة H ، المقابلة للصيغة الجزيئية العامة O m E ( OH) n . قد تكون هذه المركبات حمضية أو قاعدية أو مذبذبة اعتمادًا على خصائص ذرة E المركزية. تتضمن أمثلة هذه المركبات حمض الكبريتيك ، O 2 S (OH) 2 ، حمض الكبريتيك ، OS (OH) 2 ، حمض النيتريك ، O 2 NOH ، حمض البيركلوريك ، O 3 ClOH ، هيدروكسيد الألومنيوم ، Al (OH) 3 ، هيدروكسيد الكالسيوم ، Ca (OH) 2 وهيدروكسيد البوتاسيوم KOH. <img alt = "" Eq1 "" src = "" / files / ftp_upload / 11406 / 11406_Figure_1.svg "" style = "" height: 90px؛ "" / > إذا كانت الذرة المركزية ، E ، ذات كهرسلبية منخفضة ، فإن جاذبيتها للإلكترونات تكون منخفضة. يوجد ميل ضئيل للذرة المركزية لتشكيل رابطة تساهمية قوية مع ذرة الأكسجين ، والرابطة أ بين العنصر والأكسجين تنكسر بسهولة أكبر من الرابطة ب بين الأكسجين والهيدروجين. ومن ثم ، فإن الرابطة a هي أيونات أيونية ، ويتم إطلاق أيونات الهيدروكسيد في المحلول ، وتتصرف المادة كقاعدة & # 8212 ؛ هذا هو الحال مع Ca (OH) 2 و KOH. تعتبر السالبية الكهربية السفلية من سمات العناصر المعدنية الأكثر ؛ ومن ثم ، فإن العناصر المعدنية تشكل هيدروكسيدات أيونية ، وهي بحكم تعريفها مركبات أساسية. من ناحية أخرى ، إذا كانت للذرة E طاقة كهربائية عالية نسبيًا ، فإنها تجذب بقوة الإلكترونات التي تشترك فيها مع ذرة الأكسجين ، مما يجعلها رابطة تساهمية قوية نسبيًا. وبذلك تضعف رابطة الأكسجين والهيدروجين ، الرابطة ب ، بسبب إزاحة الإلكترونات نحو إي. السندات ب قطبية وتطلق بسهولة أيونات الهيدروجين إلى المحلول ، لذلك تتصرف المادة كحمض. تعتبر السالبية الكهربية العالية من سمات العناصر غير المعدنية. وبالتالي ، فإن العناصر غير المعدنية تشكل مركبات تساهمية تحتوي على مجموعات OH الحمضية التي تسمى أحماض أوكسيدة. تؤدي زيادة عدد أكسدة الذرة المركزية E أيضًا إلى زيادة حموضة أحد حامض الأكسيد لأن هذا يزيد من جذب الإلكترونات التي يتشاركها مع الأكسجين وبالتالي يضعف رابطة O-H. حامض الكبريتيك ، H 2 SO 4 ، أو O 2 S (OH) 2 (برقم أكسدة الكبريت من +6) ، أكثر حمضية من حمض الكبريت ، H 2 SO 3 ، أو OS (OH) 2 (برقم أكسدة الكبريت من +4). وبالمثل ، حمض النيتريك ، HNO 3 ، أو O 2 NOH (N عدد الأكسدة = +5) ، أكثر حمضية من حمض النيتروز ، HNO 2 ، أو ONOH (عدد الأكسدة N = +3). في كل من هذه الأزواج ، يكون عدد أكسدة الذرة المركزية أكبر بالنسبة للحمض الأقوى. أحماض الكربوكسيل تحتوي الأحماض الكربوكسيلية على مجموعة الكربوكسيل. الأحماض الكربوكسيلية هي أحماض ضعيفة بمعنى أنها ليست مؤينة بنسبة 100٪ في الماء. يعمل حمض الكربوكسيل كحمض ضعيف لأن الأكسجين الثاني المرتبط بذرة الكربون ، كما في حالة الأكسجين ، يزيد من قطبية رابطة O-H ويجعلها أضعف. علاوة على ذلك ، بعد فقدان البروتون ، يتم تحويل مجموعة الكربوكسيل إلى أيون الكربوكسيل ، والذي يُظهر صدى. تعمل هياكل الرنين المختلفة على تثبيت أيون الكربوكسيل حيث يتم فصل شحنته السالبة على عدة ذرات. هذا النص مقتبس من<a href="https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/14-3-relative-strengths-of-acids-and-bases"> Openstax, Chemistry 2e, Section 14.3: Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases</a> and <a href="https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/20-3-aldehydes-ketones-carboxylic-acids-and-esters">Openstax, Chemistry 2e, Section 20.3 Aldehydes, Ketones, Carboxylic Acids, and Esters</a>.

الأحماض والقواعد الثنائية
في حالة عدم وجود أي تأثير تسوية ، تزداد القوة الحمضية للمركبات الثنائية للهيدروجين مع اللافلزات (A) مع ارتفاع H-A ...

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Acids and Bases

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how bonding affects acid strength

Acid strength depends on bonding, electronegativity, and oxidation number. These factors help explain why some hydrogen compounds act as strong acids, while others behave as weak acids or bases.

For binary acids, which are hydrogen compounds with one other nonmetal, acidity increases as the H-A bond gets weaker down a group. That is why the order for group 17 is HF &lt; HCl &lt; HBr &lt; HI, and for group 16 it is H2O &lt; H2S &lt; H2Se &lt; H2Te. Across a period, acid strength increases as the nonmetal becomes more electronegative because the H-A bond becomes more polar. The second row follows CH4 &lt; NH3 &lt; H2O &lt; HF, and the third row follows SiH4 &lt; PH3 &lt; H2S &lt; HCl.

Ternary acids and bases contain hydrogen, oxygen, and a third element E. Their general form is OmE(OH)n, and they may be acidic, basic, or amphoteric. Examples include sulfuric acid, sulfurous acid, nitric acid, perchloric acid, aluminum hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, and potassium hydroxide.

If E has low electronegativity, it does not hold electrons strongly. In that case, the bond between E and oxygen is more likely to break than the O-H bond, so hydroxide ions are released and the compound acts as a base. This is typical of more metallic elements, which form ionic hydroxides such as Ca(OH)2 and KOH.

If E has high electronegativity, it pulls electron density toward itself. That weakens the O-H bond and makes it easier to release H+ ions, so the compound behaves as an acid. These nonmetal compounds are called oxyacids. A higher oxidation number on E also increases oxyacid strength because it pulls harder on shared electrons. For example, H2SO4 is more acidic than H2SO3, and HNO3 is more acidic than HNO2.

Carboxylic acids also show weak-acid behavior. They contain a carboxyl group, and they are not fully ionized in water. The second oxygen attached to carbon makes the O-H bond more polar and weaker. After the proton leaves, the carboxylate ion is stabilized by resonance, which spreads the negative charge over several atoms.

How Bonding Affects Acid Strength

bronsted-lowry acids and bases

Proton Transfer in Acids and Bases

Acids and bases can be understood through proton transfer. Early scientists described acids by their sour taste, their effect on dyes, and their reaction with limestone, which releases carbon dioxide. Robert Boyle also noted that acid solutions can lose these properties after contact with alkali, or base, solutions. The modern view developed step by step. Humphry Davy showed that hydrogen is the essential part of acids. Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac then described acids as substances that neutralize...

water: a bronsted-lowry acid and base

Water as an Amphiprotic Substance

Water can act as both a Brønsted-Lowry acid and a Brønsted-Lowry base. When hydrogen fluoride dissolves in water, it donates protons to water. This is acid ionization. The products are hydronium ions and fluoride ions. Water can also accept protons from another substance. When pyridine dissolves in water, it accepts a proton from water molecules. This is base ionization. The products are hydroxide ions and pyridinium ions. These reactions show that water can play either role. A substance that...

ph scale

pH and pOH in Water

pH and pOH show how hydronium and hydroxide ions behave in water and other aqueous solutions. These ion concentrations are linked by the ion product of water, K w , so when one goes up, the other goes down. Because ion concentrations can differ by huge amounts, a logarithmic scale is used to describe them. pH is defined from the hydronium ion concentration, [H3O+], and pOH is the matching p-function for hydroxide ion concentration. These two values are also connected through the K w...

relative strengths of conjugate acid-base pairs

relative-strengths-of-conjugate-acid-base-pairs

How Ka and Kb Show Acid-Base Strength

Brønsted-Lowry acid-base chemistry is based on proton transfer. That idea helps show how the strength of an acid is linked to the strength of its conjugate base, and vice versa. Acid and base strength is measured with ionization constants, Ka and Kb, which tell how far an ionization reaction goes. For the conjugate pair HA and A−, the acid ionizes in water and the base reaction can be written for the partner species. When the two reactions are added, they give the autoionization of water. The...

strong acid and base solutions

Strong Acids, Strong Bases, and pH

Strong acids and strong bases change the pH of a solution by dissociating completely in water. A strong acid produces hydronium ions, which are H3O+ ions, and a strong base produces hydroxide ions, OH-. Because the dissociation is complete, the ion concentration can be found from the starting concentration and the molar ratio. For example, 0.20 M hydrobromic acid dissociates fully in water. It produces 0.20 M hydronium ions and 0.20 M bromide ions. A 0.015 M KOH solution also dissociates...

weak acid solutions

Weak Acid Equilibrium in Water

Weak acid equilibrium in water explains why many acids only partially react when dissolved. Most weak acid molecules stay in their original form, and only a small amount of hydronium ions forms. Weak acids are common in nature. They help create the tangy taste of citrus fruits, the stinging sensation from insect bites, and the smells linked to body odor. Acetic acid is a familiar weak acid. It is the main ingredient in vinegar. Its equation uses a double arrow to show that the reaction with...

weak base solutions

Weak Base pH and Kb Calculations

Weak base pH and Kb calculations show how partially reacting bases change water chemistry. Weak bases produce hydroxide ions when they dissolve by reacting with water molecules. Because the reaction only happens partly, these compounds are classified as weak bases. Weak bases are common in nature and in technology. Ammonia is one major example. Global production of ammonia is typically well over 100 metric tons each year. It is used as an agricultural fertilizer, a starting material for...

mixtures of acids

pH of Acid Mixtures

The pH of acid mixtures depends on the acids present, their dissociation constants, and their starting concentrations. When a solution contains two different acids, the pH can be found by choosing the method that fits their relative strengths. This makes acid mixtures a useful case for applying acid-base rules in chemistry. In a mixture of a strong acid and a weak acid, the strong acid dissociates completely and supplies almost all of the hydronium ions in the solution. The weak acid...

ions as acids and bases

Salt Hydrolysis and pH of Solutions

Salt hydrolysis explains why some salt solutions are acidic, basic, or neutral. Salts are ionic compounds made of cations and anions. In water, either ion may react with water through an acid or base ionization reaction. The pH of the solution depends on the relative acid-base strength of the ions in the salt. Ammonium chloride is a good example of an acidic salt. When it dissolves, it separates into ammonium ions and chloride ions. The ammonium ion is the conjugate acid of ammonia, so it can...

determining the ph of salt solutions

Salt Hydrolysis and pH in Solutions

Salt hydrolysis and pH in solutions depend on the ions released when a salt dissolves. Some ions react with water, while others do not. The balance between the cation and anion helps show whether the solution becomes acidic, basic, or neutral. Salts with pH-neutral anions and cations that produce hydronium ions give acidic solutions with pH below 7. Ammonium nitrate is one example. In NH4NO3, NO3− does not react with water, but NH4+ forms hydronium ions, so the solution is acidic. Other salts...

acid/base strengths and dissociation constants

acidbase-strengths-and-dissociation-constants

Acid and Base Strength in Water

Acid and base strength in water depends on how much a substance ionizes after it dissolves. If ionization is nearly complete, the substance is called strong. If only a small amount ionizes, it is called weak. Weak acids and weak bases are much more common than strong ones. The most common strong acids are HClO4, HCl, HBr, HI, HNO3, and H2SO4. The most common strong bases are LiOH, NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2, Sr(OH)2, and Ba(OH)2. These strong acids and bases ionize essentially completely in water. <br...

polyprotic acids

Stepwise Ionization of Polyprotic Acids

Polyprotic acids lose hydrogen ions in steps. The number of ionizable protons in a molecule determines whether an acid is monoprotic, diprotic, or triprotic. This video also shows that polyprotic bases can accept more than one proton. Monoprotic acids have one ionizable hydrogen atom per molecule. Examples include HCl, HNO3, and HCN. Their reactions with water form hydronium ions and the matching anion. Acetic acid, CH3CO2H, is also monoprotic because only the hydrogen in the carboxyl group...

acid strength and molecular structure

Acid strength depends on bonding, electronegativity, and oxidation number. These factors help explain why some hydrogen compounds act as strong acids, while others behave as weak acids or bases. For binary acids, which are hydrogen compounds with one other nonmetal, acidity increases as the H-A bond gets weaker down a group. That is why the order for group 17 is HF &lt; HCl &lt; HBr &lt; HI, and for group 16 it is H2O &lt; H2S &lt; H2Se &lt; H2Te. Across a period, acid strength increases as...

lewis acids and bases

Electron-Pair Reactions in Acid-Base Chemistry

Electron-pair reactions explain Lewis acid-base chemistry. In 1923, G. N. Lewis described acids and bases by how they accept or donate a pair of electrons. When that electron pair forms a coordinate covalent bond, one atom supplies both bonding electrons. This bond is also called a dative bond. A simple example is the reaction of water with a hydrogen ion to make a hydronium ion. Ammonia can also combine with a hydrogen ion to form an ammonium ion. In both cases, the reaction creates a Lewis...

key terms and concepts

Learn how bond strength, electronegativity, oxidation number, and resonance help explain acid strength in binary acids, oxyacids, and carboxylic acids.

How Bonding Affects Acid Strength | JoVE K12

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Atoms &mdash; and the protons, neutrons, and electrons that compose them &mdash; are extremely small. For example, a carbon atom weighs less than 2 ...

Molar Mass

The identity of a substance is defined not only by the types of atoms or ions it contains but by the quantity of each type of atom or ion. For example, ...

Use the Periodic Table as a model to predict the relative properties of elements based on the pattern of valence electrons in the outermost energy levels of atoms.

PS.Chm.2.1

atomic-radii-and-effective-nuclear-charge

Atomic Radii and Effective Nuclear Charge

The elements in groups of the periodic table exhibit similar chemical behavior. This similarity occurs because the members of a group have the same number ...

Ionic Radii

Ionic radius is the measure used to describe the size of an ion. A cation always has fewer electrons and the same number of protons as the parent atom; it ...

Ionization Energy

The amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from a gaseous atom in its ground state is called its first ionization energy ...

Electron Affinity

The electron affinity (EA) is the energy change for adding an electron to a gaseous atom to form an anion (negative ion).



This process can be either ...

Construct an explanation to infer the atomic size, reactivity, electronegativity, and ionization energy of an element based on its position in the Periodic Table.

PS.Chm.2.2

Types of Chemical Bonds

Chemical bonding theories were pioneered by American chemist Gilbert&#xA0;N. Lewis. He developed a model called the Lewis model to explain the type and ...

Lewis Symbols and the Octet Rule

Chemical bonds are complex interactions between two or more atoms or ions, which reduce the potential energy of the molecule. Gilbert N. Lewis developed a ...

Ionic Bonding and Electron Transfer

Ions are atoms or molecules bearing an electrical charge. A cation (a positive ion) forms when a neutral atom loses one or more electrons from its valence ...

The Born-Haber Cycle

Lattice Energy&#xA0;

An ionic compound is stable because of the electrostatic attraction between its positive and negative ions. The lattice energy of a ...

trends-in-lattice-energy-ion-size-and-charge

Trends in Lattice Energy: Ion Size and Charge

An ionic compound is stable because of the electrostatic attraction between its positive and negative ions. The lattice energy of a compound is a measure ...

Covalent Bonding and Lewis Structures

Compared to ionic bonds, which results from the transfer of electrons between metallic and nonmetallic atoms, covalent bonds result from the mutual ...

Electronegativity

Whether a bond is nonpolar or polar covalent is determined by a property of the bonding atoms called electronegativity.&#xA0;

Electronegativity values of ...

bond-polarity-dipole-moment-and-percent-ionic-character

Bond Polarity, Dipole Moment, and Percent Ionic Character

Bond Polarity

The absolute value of the difference in electronegativity (&Delta;EN) of two bonded atoms provides a rough measure of the polarity to be ...

lewis-structures-of-molecular-compounds-and-polyatomic-ions

Lewis Structures of Molecular Compounds and Polyatomic Ions

To draw Lewis structures for complicated molecules and molecular ions, it is helpful to follow a step-by-step procedure as outlined:


	Determine the ...

Resonance

The Lewis structure of a nitrite anion (NO2&minus;) may actually be drawn in two different ways, distinguished by the locations of the N-O and N=O ...

Formal Charges

In some cases, there are seemingly more than one valid Lewis structures for molecules and polyatomic ions. The concept of formal charges can be used to ...

Exceptions to the Octet Rule

Many covalent molecules have central atoms that do not have eight electrons in their Lewis structures. These molecules fall into three categories:


	...

Bond Energies and Bond Lengths

Stable molecules exist because covalent bonds hold the atoms together. The strength of a covalent bond is measured by the energy required to break it, ...

Analyze and interpret data to explain the mechanisms and properties of the two main types of intramolecular (ionic and covalent) bonds.

PS.Chm.3.1

molecular-comparison-of-gases-liquids-and-solids

Molecular Comparison of Gases, Liquids, and Solids

Particles in a solid are tightly packed together (fixed shape) and often arranged in a regular pattern; in a liquid, they are close together with no ...

Intermolecular vs Intramolecular Forces

Intermolecular forces (IMF) are electrostatic attractions arising from charge-charge interactions between molecules. The strength of the intermolecular ...

Intermolecular Forces

Atoms and molecules interact through bonds (or forces): intramolecular and intermolecular. The forces are electrostatic as they arise from interactions ...

comparing-intermolecular-forces-melting-point-boiling-point

Comparing Intermolecular Forces: Melting Point, Boiling Point, and Miscibility

Intermolecular forces are attractive forces that exist between molecules. They dictate several bulk properties, such as melting points, boiling points, ...

surface-tension-capillary-action-and-viscosity

Surface Tension, Capillary Action, and Viscosity

Surface Tension
The various IMFs between identical molecules of a substance are examples of cohesive forces. The molecules within a liquid are surrounded ...

Construct an explanation to summarize the influences intermolecular forces have on the properties of chemical compounds.

PS.Chm.3.2

Analyze the structure of atoms and isotopes.

How Bonding Affects Acid Strength

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