Name: checking breathing distress by exam
Uploaded: 2023-04-30T06:34:27.000Z
Duration: 9 min 59 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

new-york-state-science-learning-standards

New York State Science Learning Standards

High School

Life Science

Structure and Function

HS-LS1-3.

respiratory-exam-i-inspection-and-palpation

Respiratory Exam I: Inspection and Palpation

1.考试的准备工作
<ol>
	<li>之前检查病人，用肥皂和水彻底洗手或用抗菌洗清洁它们。</li>
	<li>向病人解释，你将要执行验肺。</li>
</ol>
2.定位病人
<ol>
	<li>请确保病人脱至腰间 （女性保持穿的内裤和一次暴露每胸廓之一）。</li>
	<li>调整病人位置检查桌上 30-45 度角，并从右侧接近病人。审查的外的侧肺要求将病人身体前倾或坐在床边。</li>
</ol>
3.一般观察
<ol>
	<li>第一次有一般看看病人。此时，病人的生命体征应该已经得到了。特别注意病人的呼吸率和氧饱和度。</li>
	<li>注意到明显呼吸窘迫的迹象。这些措施包括:<ol>
		<li>快速呼吸速率 (正常的呼吸速率是周围 14 20 每分钟呼吸次数)</li>
		<li>青紫 （蓝色或紫色着色的皮肤或粘膜）</li>
		<li>不寻常的姿态，以最大限度地进入空气 （病人可能会向前倾上伸出来的膀臂 [三脚架位置],）</li>
		<li>使用辅助呼吸肌呼吸 (不等边，胸锁乳突和斜方肌肌) 除了横膈膜</li>
		<li>向内的运动的肋间肌肉 （肋间撤回）</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>注意: 如果咳嗽病人。如果病人生产痰，这也可以提供诊断的重要线索，是有基础的呼吸道感染。</li>
	<li>注意: 如果病人的声音听起来沙哑，说话的时候。一个沙哑的声音可能是上呼吸道炎症，感染或恶性肿瘤的迹象。</li>
	<li>注意如果喘息是存在的。</li>
	<li>仔细观察任何其他特定异常的呼吸模式。</li>
</ol>
4.外周血检查
<ol>
	<li>手考试<ol>
		<li>要求患者伸出手臂和延长在手腕。评估的扑震颤 (asterixis)，有时引起二氧化碳潴留）。请注意，病人也会表现出震颤是否他们刚刚收到支气管扩张剂治疗。</li>
		<li>请注意是否指甲上染色的尼古丁是本。</li>
		<li>要求患者把这两个缩略图--并排。注意: 如果在里面形成一个菱形。如果泡吧 （减少指甲与甲床之间的角度） 不存在，这不会发生。这可以是肺纤维化、 囊性纤维化或支气管癌的标志。</li>
		<li>检查皮肤结节性红斑 （红的、 痛苦的、 温柔的肿块或结节伴结节病）。</li>
		<li>触诊桡动脉脉搏在手腕处。边界或异常强大的脉冲可以二氧化碳潴留的标志。</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>头部检查<ol>
		<li>检查有面部潮红、 二氧化碳潴留潜在迹象。</li>
		<li>检查鼻息肉或证据的鼻出血鼻子。要求患者倾斜向上的头，看着每个鼻孔，用手电筒。</li>
		<li>要求患者张开嘴，伸出舌头。舌头的颜色应该是粉色/红色。如果它是蓝变色，这表明中央青紫。</li>
		<li>检查为咽炎或扁桃体发炎的喉咙。要求患者出声说:"救命啊"。使用手电筒，看看后面病人的喉咙。你可以使用压舌板获得口腔后部好视图。</li>
		<li>观察患者的脸上寻找霍纳氏综合征 （黑社会的减数分裂 （缢缩瞳）、 上睑下垂和面肌无汗 （减少那一边的脸上出汗）。霍纳氏综合征可引起臂丛神经受压从潘科斯特 （肺尖） 肿瘤。</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>评估为淋巴结肿大<ol>
		<li>触诊淋巴结用两只手，一个在每一边的病人的脸上。</li>
		<li>在耳前腺开始，然后工作了，你的手指末端触诊: jugulodigastric，颌下、 颏下前, 路颈椎、 锁骨上、 后颈部后, 唇瓣耳、 枕部淋巴结。</li>
		<li>通过举行病人的手臂附近用一只手肘关节和触诊腋窝与另一只手在评估为腋淋巴结肿大。</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
5.胸部检查
<ol>
	<li>检查胸壁将证据事先开胸手术的疤痕。</li>
	<li>检查胸部形状和寻找任何可见胸部畸形。胸部的前后直径通常小于其外侧的直径 (图 1)。</li>
	<li>"桶"胸部 (图 2) 是鼓鼓的胸部前后径异常增加和减少运动中呼吸，观察慢性阻塞性肺病和肺气肿。</li>
	<li>也寻找漏斗胸 (图 3) （凹陷或屈服在胸部，通常先天性） 与鸡胸 (图 4) （凸出或"鸽子"胸部，再一次，通常先天性）。</li>
	<li>注意: 如果侧后凸畸形 (图 5)，向外和横向弯曲的脊柱可以损害呼吸，是本。</li>
	<li>注意: 如果是对称与平等扩张的两个 hemithoraces 的胸部运动。</li>
</ol>
<img alt="Figure 4" src="/files/ftp_upload/10028/10028fig1.jpg"> 
图 1。一个正常的成年人 thorax。（左）; 胸横剖面躯干 （右）。前后胸部直径小于横向直径。
<img alt="Figure 4" src="/files/ftp_upload/10028/10028fig2.jpg"> 
图 2。桶状胸。（左）; 胸横剖面躯干 （右） 与标志的桶状胸 （增加的前后径）
<img alt="Figure 4" src="/files/ftp_upload/10028/10028fig3.jpg"> 
图 3。漏斗胸 （漏斗胸）。横剖面的胸部 （左）;躯干 （右） 与漏斗胸 （胸骨下部凹陷） 的迹象
<img alt="Figure 4" src="/files/ftp_upload/10028/10028fig4.jpg"> 
图 4。鸡胸 （鸽子胸部）。横剖面的胸部 （左）;躯干 （右） 与鸡胸 （增加的前后胸直径、 前方流离失所者的胸骨和抑郁的肋软骨） 的迹象
<img alt="Figure 4" src="/files/ftp_upload/10028/10028fig5.jpg"> 
图 5。胸侧后凸畸形。横剖面的胸部 （左）;躯干 （右） 侧后凸畸形 （异常脊柱曲率和椎体旋转） 的迹象。
6.触诊
<ol>
	<li>触诊气管<ol>
		<li>定位自己在病人面前。</li>
		<li>将你的右手食指放在胸骨切迹。</li>
		<li>触诊气管以确定它是否在正常 （正中） 的位置的横向边界。斜井的气管可以表明肺病理变化走或向一侧的偏差。气管将偏离的一侧积液或肺体积，并向一侧气胸，折叠肺或肺不张。</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>触诊胸壁。<ol>
		<li>使用右手还是左手手掌来评估任何明显点压痛，肿块，或肋骨畸形。</li>
		<li>在 4-5 级胸部触诊，前方和后方。右派和左派之间的任何差异可以指示异常基础肺组织。</li>
		<li>请注意任何证据皮下气肿，哪个感觉皮肤下厚实的触感。这被观察时空气进入皮下组织，并与继发于创伤或破裂的支气管肺崩溃相关联。</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>评估胸部扩张<ol>
		<li>把你的手，手指相碰，在中线和延长你的手指，使联系与胸部的外侧边缘前方，只低于水平的奶嘴。</li>
		<li>要求患者做一次深呼吸。拇指应该分开由大约 5 厘米或更多在正常胸部扩张 （这种技术还可以利用后方）。</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>评估触觉颤。通常情况下，触觉颤是增加巩固地区上空，在胸腔积液在肺崩溃的情况下降低。<ol>
		<li>每只手触摸在同一水平上的右和左胸部小鱼际 （尺） 两侧胸部前下部将你的双手。</li>
		<li>问病人说"99"或"1-2-1"。振动感到贴住你的手应该是相同的每只手里。</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

首先寻找在一个病人和独特的呼吸模式的呼吸窘迫的任何迹象。严重的基础肺疾病往往会从简单地瞥一眼患者明显。慢性阻塞性肺病、 肺气肿等条件可以展现自己在病人的外观和体型。这些病人松散可以列为"粉色河豚"或"蓝色 bloaters"。"粉色河豚"通常薄，有肺气肿。他们有超膨胀的胸部，通常为了保持他们的氧饱和度，有快速呼吸速率和轻度低氧血症。"蓝色船工们"是肥胖和更严重缺氧，依靠他们呼吸驱动的缺氧。他们通常有慢性阻塞性肺病和二氧化碳潴留与心衰的体征。
请记住，将由简单听力过程中检查和触诊 （不使用听诊器） 提供重要的诊断线索。例如，如果一个病人听起来沙哑、 拥挤、 喘息，或者咳嗽，这可以洞察到诊断在许多情况下。触诊然后将确认什么已发现通过仔细地目视检查。淋巴结肿大可以表明一种呼吸道感染，并减少的胸部扩张是慢性肺部疾病的标志。花时间去通过这整个过程在每个病人在你考试期间。

呼吸道考试 i: 检查和触诊

资料来源: Suneel Dhand，MD，参加医师，内科，贝斯以色列女执事医疗中心
与主诉呼吸急促的呼吸道系统疾病是门诊和住院病人评价的最常见原因之一。呼吸问题的最明显可见线索将病人是否显示呼吸窘迫，如快速呼吸速率和/或发绀的任何迹象。在临床情况下，这总是需要紧急关注和氧气治疗。
不同于其他体系统中的病理，许多肺部疾病，包括慢性阻塞性肺疾病 (COPD)、 哮喘和肺炎，可通过仔细的临床检查单独诊断。这将启动全面检查和触诊。请记住，在非紧急情况下病人的完整的历史记录将一直已经采取，获得重要洞察曝光历史 （例如，抽烟），这可能会引起特定的肺部疾病。这段历史就可以确定物理结果进行检查。

来源：Suneel Dhand，医学博士，内科主治医师，贝斯以色列女执事医疗中心  
呼吸系统疾病以主要……

以呼吸困难为主要症状的呼吸系统疾病是门诊和住院评估最常见的原因之一。我们吸入的空气通过气管，经支气管进入肺部。在肺内，空气进一步通过细支气管，最终进入被称为肺泡的特化气囊。肺泡周围环绕着毛细血管，使得吸入的氧气能够扩散进入血液，同时促进二氧化碳的排出，从而维持机体的稳态。肺功能障碍常见于哮喘、肺气肿或慢性阻塞性肺疾病（简称COPD）等疾病，可通过简单的呼吸系统检查进行诊断。该评估包括视诊、触诊、叩诊和听诊。本视频将仅重点介绍视诊和触诊部分；其余内容将在本系列的另一视频中讲解。首先，让我们简要回顾一下在呼吸系统检查和触诊过程中需要注意的内容。与其他系统疾病的诊断不同，许多肺部疾病仅通过仔细的视诊即可诊断。例如，仅通过检查呼吸频率，即可诊断呼吸窘迫。同样，观察参与呼吸的肌肉也能提供一定的诊断线索。正常或安静呼吸仅通过膈肌和肋间外肌的活动即可完成，而用力呼气则需要肋间内肌和腹肌的参与。除这些主要呼吸肌外，还有一些辅助吸气肌，如斜角肌、胸锁乳突肌、胸小肌和斜方肌。在视诊过程中若观察到这些肌肉持续参与呼吸，提示存在呼吸困难。另一个可检查的参数是胸廓的前后径，正常情况下其前后径小于横径。因此，当胸廓前后径异常增大，表现为胸廓膨隆呈“桶状”时，提示可能存在慢性阻塞性肺疾病（COPD）或肺气肿等疾病。某些胸廓畸形，如表现为胸壁凹陷或内陷的漏斗胸（pectus excavatum），或表现为胸壁突出、又称“鸽胸”的鸡胸（pectus carinatum），通常由先天性缺陷引起。通过视诊还可发现脊柱后侧凸（kyphoscoliosis），即脊柱向外侧和侧面的弯曲，这种情况可严重损害呼吸功能。触诊时，通过胸骨上窝触诊气管的侧缘，有助于判断气管是否处于正常的中线位置，因为气管偏移可能提示肺部病变。其他主要触诊区域包括头颈部及腋窝淋巴结。淋巴结病变（即淋巴结数量或大小异常）可能提示呼吸道感染。综合来看，仔细的视诊和触诊可以提供大量关于患者呼吸系统生理和病理生理状况的信息。在回顾了呼吸系统检查中需要注意的要点之后，接下来让我们逐步了解一般观察和视诊的详细步骤。每次检查前，都应使用肥皂和温水彻底洗手。进入诊室，此时患者已就座。向患者自我介绍，并简要说明即将进行的检查内容。确保患者已脱去上身衣物至腰部。女性患者应保留内衣，并根据要求一次仅暴露一侧胸半部。将患者安置在检查床上，取30–45°角的半卧位，并从其右侧开始检查。首先，观察是否存在明显的呼吸窘迫体征，包括：声音嘶哑、呼吸频率加快、为最大限度增加通气而采取的异常姿势（如端坐呼吸）、使用辅助呼吸肌呼吸、肋间肌内陷、伴有痰液的咳嗽、喘鸣以及发绀。接下来，让患者伸展双臂并背伸腕关节，观察是否存在震颤，同时注意指甲是否有尼古丁染色。请患者将两个拇指的指甲侧面对齐并紧靠在一起，观察其内侧是否形成菱形。若存在杵状指，则此菱形无法形成，这可能是肺纤维化、囊性纤维化或支气管源性肺癌的征象。检查胫前皮肤是否存在结节性红斑，即皮肤炎症或脂膜炎，其通常引起疼痛的红色结节性病灶。观察患者面部是否有明显的面部潮红，以及霍纳综合征的体征，后者包括瞳孔缩小（miosis）、上睑下垂（ptosis）和半侧面部无汗（hemifacial anhidrosis），即面部一侧出汗减少。请患者抬头，并借助手电筒检查每个鼻孔，以观察是否存在鼻息肉或鼻出血的迹象。接着，指导患者张开嘴并伸出舌头。应注意舌头的颜色：粉红色或红色为正常，而青紫色变色提示中心性发绀。然后，请患者发出“啊——”的声音，使用压舌板检查咽喉是否存在咽炎或扁桃体炎症。此后，移至胸部区域，检查胸壁是否存在可提示既往开胸手术的瘢痕。同时观察胸廓形状，查看有无明显的畸形。现在，让我们回顾呼吸系统体格检查中的触诊步骤。首先触诊桡动脉脉搏。脉搏搏动增强或异常有力可能是二氧化碳潴留的征象。接下来，评估颈部区域是否存在淋巴结肿大。应同时触诊双侧淋巴结。依次检查耳前淋巴结、颈静脉二腹肌淋巴结（jugulodigastric）、下颌下淋巴结、下颌下淋巴结（submental）、前颈淋巴结、锁骨上淋巴结、后颈淋巴结、耳后淋巴结以及枕部淋巴结。通过一手握住患者肘部附近，另一手在腋窝处进行触诊，以评估腋窝淋巴结是否肿大。随后，将右手食指置于胸骨上窝以触摸气管，触诊气管两侧边缘，判断其是否处于正常的中线位置。接着，用手掌触诊胸壁，评估是否存在明显的压痛点、肿块或肋骨畸形。在前胸和后胸的四到五个不同水平进行触诊，左右两侧的差异可能提示潜在的肺组织异常。接下来评估胸廓扩张度，将双手置于乳头水平稍下方，双侧拇指于中线相触，手指向外伸展并接触胸壁侧缘。嘱患者深吸气。正常胸廓扩张时，双侧拇指应分开约5 cm或以上。该方法也可用于背部检查。最后，为评估触觉语音震颤，将双手的小鱼际侧置于胸壁前下方。然后要求患者每次你改变位置时都说“99”。双手所感受到的振动在两侧相应位置应基本相同。同样测试也可在胸壁后侧区域进行。您刚刚观看了 JoVE 关于呼吸系统检查中视诊和触诊的视频。一些严重的肺部疾病有时仅通过观察患者即可察觉。获取与吸烟及其他暴露史相关的重要线索，可进一步帮助诊断特定的肺部疾病。此外，仔细的视诊和触诊有助于发现那些不明显的疾病，因此应对每位有呼吸系统主诉的患者都完整地进行这一检查流程。一如既往，感谢观看！

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临床技能

Physical Examinations I

体格检查 I

checking breathing distress by exam

Respiratory exam starts with looking for breathing distress and feeling the chest. Shortness of breath is a common reason for both outpatient and inpatient evaluation. Early inspection can reveal fast breathing or cyanosis, which is a bluish color change that can signal low oxygen.

If a patient shows respiratory distress, the situation needs urgent attention and oxygen therapy. In many cases, careful clinical examination can help identify lung problems without relying only on tests. This is especially useful for conditions such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma, and pneumonia.

The exam begins with inspection and palpation. Inspection means observing the patient for visible signs of trouble. Palpation means using the hands to feel the chest and confirm findings.

A complete history is also important in non-emergency situations. Information such as smoking exposure can point toward specific lung diseases. The history then helps support the physical findings as the respiratory exam continues.

Checking Breathing Distress by Exam

general approach to the physical exam

Why Physical Exams Still Matter

Physical examination remains an important part of medicine. Doctors have used the body exam for centuries to connect changes in body function with disease. Even with modern imaging and lab tests, the bedside exam still helps clinicians understand what may be happening in the patient. Physical examination is not a replacement for tests, and it does not answer every question. Some maneuvers that were once highly valued may have limited usefulness. Still, many conditions can only be found through...

observation and inspection

Clinical Observation in Physical Exam

Clinical observation is the starting point of a physical examination and begins at the first contact with a patient. Observation is a broad term for using the senses carefully to gather information. Inspection is a narrower term. It refers to what can be seen with the eyes, especially on the surface of the body, rather than to behavior. Skilled clinicians use more than sight when they examine a patient. They also rely on touch, through palpation and percussion, and on hearing, through...

palpation

How Hand Position Guides Palpation

Palpation uses touch to collect diagnostic information during the physical exam. It is one of the ways a healthcare provider uses the senses to learn more about a patient. The part of the hand used for palpation changes depending on the body area being examined. Finger pads are best for fine detail. Their dense sensory nerves help the examiner feel small features, such as the borders of masses or lymph nodes. The back of the hand, also called the dorsal surface, gives a rough sense of relative...

percussion

Clinical Percussion and Body Sound

Clinical percussion uses tapping to create sound and help assess what lies beneath the body surface. It is a simple bedside technique that depends on the way sound changes when it travels through different tissues. The method began with Leopold Auenbrugger, an Austrian inn-keeper's son, who found that tapping beer barrels could help him take inventory. He later applied the same idea to patients in Vienna and published the first description of its diagnostic use in 1761. Jean-Nicolas Corvisart...

auscultation

Stethoscope Sounds in Clinical Exam

Auscultation is a clinical exam method that lets a provider listen to sounds inside the body. Doctors use it to gather important diagnostic information from the chest, heart, abdomen, and blood vessels. For many years, auscultation meant immediate auscultation. In that method, the examiner placed an ear directly on the patient's skin. This approach was used for centuries, but it became less useful in nineteenth-century France because of social norms and poor diagnostic yield. René Laënnec...

proper adjustment of patient attire during the physical exam

proper-adjustment-of-patient-attire-during-the-physical-exam

Draping for a Better Physical Exam

Draping is an important part of a careful physical exam. It helps the provider examine the right body area while also protecting patient modesty. Good draping takes practice because the examiner must balance exposure with comfort. Correct technique also improves the accuracy of the exam. Skin lesions can be missed if inspection is done through clothing. Lung crackles may be reported by mistake when the chest is examined through a T-shirt, and subtle heart findings can be missed when...

blood pressure measurement

Manual Blood Pressure Reading Steps

Blood pressure reading uses an indirect method to measure the pressure of blood against vessel walls. Blood pressure, or BP, is a vital sign that is checked routinely in hospital and outpatient settings. It is one of the most common medical assessments performed around the world. The indirect method is non-invasive, safe, and easily reproducible, so it is used most often. BP can be measured automatically by oscillometry or manually by auscultation. Auscultation uses a sphygmomanometer, which...

measuring vital signs

Vital Sign Ranges and Patient Status

Vital signs are objective measurements that show a patient’s clinical status. The commonly accepted vital signs are blood pressure, heart rate, temperature, respiratory rate, and oxygen saturation. In many practices, pain is also treated as the sixth vital sign and is documented with the others. Pain is different from the other vital signs because it is a subjective measurement. That means the pain scale can vary from one patient to another. A vital signs assessment includes heart rate, blood...

respiratory exam i: inspection and palpation

Respiratory exam starts with looking for breathing distress and feeling the chest. Shortness of breath is a common reason for both outpatient and inpatient evaluation. Early inspection can reveal fast breathing or cyanosis, which is a bluish color change that can signal low oxygen. If a patient shows respiratory distress, the situation needs urgent attention and oxygen therapy. In many cases, careful clinical examination can help identify lung problems without relying only on tests. This is...

respiratory exam ii: percussion and auscultation

respiratory-exam-ii-percussion-and-auscultation

Respiratory Exam: Lung Sounds and Percussion

Respiratory exam skills include percussion and auscultation of the lungs. These techniques help identify lung problems during a physical exam. Percussion uses tapping to assess the chest, and auscultation uses a stethoscope to listen for breath sounds. Percussion is a useful skill that is often skipped in routine clinical practice. When it is done correctly, it can help a physician detect underlying lung pathology. Auscultation can also give an almost immediate clue to several acute pulmonary...

cardiac exam i: inspection and palpation

Cardiac Exam I: Checking the Chest First

Cardiac exam inspection and palpation are the first steps in a careful heart assessment. These steps help a physician gather useful information before using a stethoscope. They are part of the core examination performed when a patient is first seen. Heart and circulatory disorders are common reasons for hospital admission. They can include conditions such as myocardial infarction and congestive heart failure. Because of this, learning a complete cardiac examination is important for any...

cardiac exam ii: auscultation

Listening for Normal and Abnormal Heart Sounds

Heart auscultation uses a stethoscope to listen to heart sounds and check for normal and abnormal patterns. For physicians, knowing how to hear these sounds and tell them apart is an essential skill. The sound heard at each spot on the chest relates to the closing of specific heart valves. The heart has two main sounds, called S1 and S2. S1 happens when the mitral and tricuspid valves, which are the atrioventricular valves, close after blood enters the ventricles. This marks the start of...

cardiac exam iii: abnormal heart sounds

Heart Murmurs and Gallop Sounds

Heart murmurs and gallop sounds are abnormal heart sounds that can be heard during auscultation, or listening to the heart with a stethoscope. A good understanding of normal heart sounds is the first step in telling normal sounds apart from abnormal ones. Murmurs usually have a swishing quality and point to turbulent blood flow across a heart valve. Murmurs can happen because a valve is too narrow, which is called stenosis, or because blood leaks backward across the valve, which is called...

peripheral vascular exam

Assessing PAD and Venous Signs

Peripheral vascular disease can affect blood flow in the arms and legs, and careful exam steps help reveal signs of disease. Peripheral artery disease (PAD) is linked to cardiovascular and cerebrovascular complications. Risk factors include diabetes, hyperlipidemia, hypertension, and tobacco use. Symptoms may appear as limb claudication, which is cramp-like muscle pain that gets worse with activity and better with rest. Chronic venous insufficiency (CVI) can cause lower extremity swelling,...

peripheral vascular exam using a continuous wave doppler

peripheral-vascular-exam-using-a-continuous-wave-doppler

Bedside Doppler for Leg Blood Flow Checks

Peripheral vascular disease affects the arteries and veins outside the heart, and it is common in older adults. History and physical exam can suggest the diagnosis, but Doppler ultrasound is now a routine part of the bedside vascular exam. This lesson focuses on bedside assessment of peripheral arterial disease and chronic venous insufficiency with a handheld continuous wave Doppler. A handheld Doppler is a simple tool that sends and receives ultrasound at the same time. It detects changes in...

physical examinations i

本系列为进行体检提供了基础;从测量血压或生命体征, 到关键的肺和心血管物理检查的技术不等。

Learn how respiratory distress, cyanosis, and chest palpation help identify lung problems such as asthma, COPD, and pneumonia during a clinical exam.

Checking Breathing Distress by Exam | JoVE K12

Suneel Dhand

Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center

Overview

Inspection and Palpation: What to look for?

General Observations and Inspection Steps

Palpation Steps

Summary

Characteristics of Life

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Cell Structure

Background
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Visualizing Onion and Cheek Cells
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Visualizing Onion and Human Cells
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What are Cells?

Cell Diversity

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Cytoplasm

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The Nucleus

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The Central Dogma

The DNA Helix

Nucleic Acids

DNA as a Genetic Template

Structure of a Gene

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Chromosome Structure

Base-pairing and DNA Repair

What is Gene Expression?

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RNA Structure

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Types of RNA

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Transcription

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Translation

Translation is the process of synthesizing proteins from the genetic information carried by messenger RNA (mRNA). Following transcription, it constitutes ...

Ribosomes

Ribosomes translate genetic information encoded by messenger RNA (mRNA) into proteins. Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have ribosomes. Cells that ...

Protein and Protein Structures

Proteins: From Genes to Degradation

From DNA to Protein

The flow of genetic information in cells from DNA to mRNA to protein is described by the central dogma, which states that genes specify the sequence of ...

Protein Folding

Proteins are chains of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. Upon synthesis, a protein folds into a three-dimensional conformation, critical to ...

An Overview of Gene Expression

Gene expression is the complex process where a cell uses its genetic information to make functional products. This process is regulated at multiple ...

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An Introduction to Caenorhabditis elegans

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An Overview of Genetic Analysis

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An Introduction to Cell Death

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An Introduction to Cell Division

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An Overview of Genetics and Disease

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An Introduction to Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience

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Bacterial Transformation: The Heat Shock Method

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An Introduction to Transfection

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Chromatin Immunoprecipitation

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An Overview of Epigenetics

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Community DNA Extraction from Bacterial Colonies

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Embryonic Stem Cell Culture and Differentiation

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DNA Gel Electrophoresis

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Enzyme Assays and Kinetics

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DNA Ligation Reactions

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DNA Methylation Analysis

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HS-LS1-1.

Checking Breathing Distress by Exam

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