Name: why physical exams still matter
Uploaded: 2023-04-30T06:35:19.000Z
Duration: 5 min 21 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

new-york-state-science-learning-standards

New York State Science Learning Standards

High School

Life Science

Structure and Function

HS-LS1-3.

General Approach to the Physical Exam

1. 患者接触前
<ol>
	<li>通过消毒前一位患者接触过的表面，为患者准备检查室例如，检查床）；此步骤通常由辅助人员完成。</li>
	<li>消毒您在操作过程中计划使用的所有设备（例如听诊器、反射锤</li>
	<li>用肥皂和水或外用消毒液洗手。</li>
	<li>确定临床诊疗过程中是否需要采取特定的感染控制措施（例如，接触防护措施）并获取必要的防护装备。</li>
	<li>尽量平复自身的焦虑情绪，因为患者可能因疾病而感到脆弱。若您表现得镇定，患者通常会感到更加安心。</li>
</ol>
2. 进入房间
<ol>
	<li>敲门并请求允许进入。</li>
	<li>介绍自己及您的职责。</li>
</ol>
3. 患者隐私
<ol>
	<li>请陪同患者前来的家属离开房间。这为单独与患者交谈提供了重要机会。若患者要求家属在场，通常应予以尊重。</li>
	<li>确保检查室的窗帘已拉好，门已关闭。</li>
	<li>确定检查过程中是否有陪护人员在场，若患者或医务人员感到有必要，安排陪护是合适的。对于泌尿生殖系统、直肠及女性乳房检查，通常常规安排陪护。</li>
</ol>
4. 考虑您的方法
<ol>
	<li>确定你计划进行的检查内容。这可能包括全面评估（例如在预防性就诊期间进行的检查），或根据患者的主诉及你对特定疾病的临床怀疑而进行的重点检查。</li>
	<li>无论检查是重点式还是全面式，都应以有条理、主动的方式进行，持续关注所要寻找的体征，而非仅仅机械地执行操作流程。达到能够专注于检查发现而非仅关注操作步骤的状态，需要大量练习。</li>
	<li>规划检查顺序，以提高效率并最大限度保障患者舒适。应尽量将需要同一体位完成的操作集中进行，以减少患者反复调整体位。在开始检查前，预先制定检查计划会有所帮助。</li>
</ol>
5. 患者着装
<ol>
	<li>确保患者穿着适合计划检查的衣物。如有必要，为患者提供检查服和盖布。</li>
</ol>
6. 其他环境因素考虑
<ol>
	<li>根据需要调整椅子和检查台的高度，以优化您执行操作的能力。</li>
	<li>尽可能调节照明和环境噪音。</li>
	<li>常规检查方法要求检查者位于患者的右侧。</li>
</ol>
7. 检查的组成部分
<ol>
	<li>体格检查可分为以下区域/解剖学组成部分：全身状况观察；生命体征；头、眼、耳、鼻、喉（HEENT）；颈部；胸部；心血管系统；背部；腹部；四肢；神经系统；肌肉骨骼系统；皮肤；乳腺；泌尿生殖系统；直肠；淋巴结；精神状态。各组成部分之间存在显著重叠。</li>
	<li>每个组成部分的检查均包括运用视诊、叩诊、触诊和听诊技术的操作，这些技术在各自的视频中均有详细阐述。近年来，床旁诊断性超声等新型检查手段正越来越多地被纳入体格检查中。</li>
	<li>在开始检查以及检查过程中的主要转换节点，应征得患者的同意（例如，&#34;我已经解释了接下来要进行的操作，现在可以开始检查了吗？&#34; 和 &#34;接下来，我想检查一下您的心脏。&#34;）。</li>
</ol>
8. 临床推理
<ol>
	<li>检查者必须主动权衡特定发现的存在或缺失对疾病概率的影响。经验丰富的临床医生在检查过程中会实时进行这一判断。</li>
	<li>根据检查过程中发现的结果调整最初的检查方案。例如，尽管最初可能仅计划对肺部进行简单的听诊，但若发现某一区域呼吸音减弱，则可能促使检查者采用特殊技术（e.g.，语音共振、触觉语颤）。</li>
	<li>整合病史（症状）和体格检查（体征）中获得的信息，以指导后续的诊疗决策。若某种疾病的概率足够高，可启动治疗；或可有针对性地、审慎地申请进一步检查。</li>
</ol>
9. 结束检查
<ol>
	<li>检查结束后，让患者换回日常衣物。</li>
	<li>最好等到患者重新穿好衣服后再提出您的建议和意见。</li>
</ol>
<div class="chapter_text" id="script_0">
	体格检查数百年来一直是医学实践的基础。尽管医疗仪器已取得显著进步，体格检查仍是一种重要的诊断工具，其重要性不可低估。医生在评估病史并进行体格检查时，会收集信息以形成明确的假设，从而更合理地决定检查项目的开具及对检查结果的分析。这反过来有可能降低患者风险和医疗成本。
	本视频将演示每位医生必须采取的一些关键步骤，以确保体格检查以安全且细致的方式进行。
</div>
<div class="chapter_text" id="script_1">
	体格检查可以是全面的或特定的，但每次检查前后总体步骤保持一致。让我们详细回顾这些步骤。
	首先，应通过消毒检查过程中可能接触的表面来为患者准备检查室。此外，医生应消毒听诊器或叩诊锤等可能在检查中使用的器械。每次检查前，应用肥皂和水洗手，或使用局部消毒液。如果患者患有已知的特定感染，则应采取控制措施，获取必要的防护设备。确保手套的袖口覆盖住隔离衣袖口，使皮肤不外露。
	当患者进入检查室并就座后，应敲门并请求患者允许进入。介绍自己及您的身份。请陪同患者前来就诊的家属或朋友暂时离开房间，以便有重要机会单独与患者交谈。确保检查室的窗帘已拉好，房门已关闭。在与患者交谈时，应对患者的健康状况进行一般性观察，包括：外貌是否与自述年龄相符、整体健康状况、意识清醒程度、情绪表现、思维内容与条理性，以及感知能力。
	在初步交谈之后，确定需要进行哪些方面的检查。确保患者穿着适合计划检查的衣物。如有必要，为患者提供检查服和盖布，并给予足够时间更换。一段时间后，再次敲门并请求患者允许进入检查室。请患者躺上检查床。根据需要调整检查床背部角度，以优化您执行操作的能力。体格检查可分为以下部分：一般状况评估、生命体征测量、神经系统功能与精神状态检查、头、眼、耳、鼻、咽喉、胸部、肺部、淋巴结、心血管系统、腹部、肌肉骨骼系统、皮肤、泌尿生殖系统及直肠检查。若需进行敏感部位检查（如泌尿生殖系统、直肠或乳腺检查），可能需要安排见证人在场。
	向患者解释即将进行的体格检查内容，并征得其同意后方可开始。“我已经说明了接下来要进行的操作，现在可以开始检查了吗？”每一项检查均包含视诊、叩诊、触诊和听诊等操作技术，这些技术在本系列的独立视频中有详细讲解。您应尽量将需在同一体位下完成的操作归类集中，以减少患者反复改变体位。检查结束后，请患者换回日常衣物。建议在患者重新着装完毕后再提供意见或建议。随后，综合评估特定检查结果的有无对疾病可能性的影响，并整合病史和体格检查所获得的信息，可决定是否开始治疗或有序、审慎地安排进一步检查。
</div>
<div class="chapter_text" id="script_2">
	您刚刚观看了 JoVE 关于体格检查基本方法的视频。
	本视频回顾了体格检查在现代临床诊疗中的重要性，并演示了若干关键步骤，以确保检查过程安全且规范。检查前的重要准备措施有助于降低感染风险，而系统化的操作流程可最大限度减少患者不必要的体位调整。
	鉴于当前对医疗成本控制、患者安全和服务可及性的重视，体格检查仍是一种经济、广泛可用且不良反应风险极低的临床手段。感谢您的观看！
</div>

本视频展示了体格检查在现代临床诊疗中的作用，并回顾了一些关键步骤，以确保检查以安全且尊重患者的方式进行。检查前的重要准备工作有助于降低感染风险以及患者和医务人员的焦虑情绪。保障患者隐私，并以体贴的方式使用检查服和遮布，也能使患者感到更加舒适。基于临床思维、有条不紊地实施检查，有助于提高检查的效率和诊断预测价值。对检查操作采取系统化的流程，可尽量减少患者不必要的体位调整。具体实施的检查操作因临床情况而异，但检查者始终应努力保持清晰的沟通，并关注患者的舒适度。
体格检查在患者诊疗中已发挥至关重要的作用达数千年之久，即使面对技术进步，也应继续坚持。在过去四十年中，多项在不同临床环境中开展的研究表明，仅依靠病史采集和体格检查，医生大多数情况下即可作出正确诊断。在几乎所有其他情况下，床旁获取的信息也能使临床医生运用临床思维，合理地选择并解读检查项目，从而做出诊断。鉴于当前对医疗成本控制、患者安全和服务可及性的重视，床旁诊断方法仍具有价格低廉、广泛可用且不良反应风险极低的优势。

体格检查的总体方法

来源： <a href="https://www.jove.com/author/Jaideep+S._Talwalkar">Jaideep S. Talwalkar</a>，医学博士，内科与儿科学，耶鲁大学医学院，美国康涅狄格州纽黑文市
体格检查是医学实践的基础。自罗马帝国以来，医生们便描述了身体特定部位功能改变与特定疾病状态之间的关联，并致力于深化科学认知，以提高床旁诊断水平。然而，在当今医学诊断技术日益发展的时代，我们有必要思考体格检查在当前所扮演的角色。认为体格检查能够解答所有问题是一种误解，已有大量文献指出，过去备受推崇的某些操作手法其临床价值值得怀疑。但同样错误的观点是认为体格检查在现代临床诊疗中作用甚微。
体格检查仍是一种有价值的诊断工具；许多疾病只能通过体格检查做出诊断。仅依靠实验室检查或影像学检查做出的诊断，几乎总是在床旁能够发现异常体征的基础上进行的。医生在采集病史和进行体格检查的过程中，会持续地提出并验证关于患者病情的假设。所获取的信息或许无法完全替代进一步检查的需要，但明确的假设有助于医生更合理地选择检查项目，并对检查结果提出更深入的分析。这反过来有可能降低对患者的医疗风险，并为医疗系统节约成本。最后，体格检查在治疗性医患关系中发挥着关键作用。通过这一历史悠久的体格检查仪式，临床医生有机会通过展现专注与共情来建立良好的医患关系，并通过有意识且负责任的触诊操作促进患者的康复。

来源：Jaideep S. Talwalkar，医学博士，内科与儿科学，耶鲁大学医学院，康涅狄格州纽黑文市  
体格检查是……的基础

体格检查已有数个世纪的医学实践基础。尽管医疗仪器已取得显著进步，体格检查仍然是重要的诊断工具，其重要性不可低估。医生在采集病史并进行体格检查时，会收集相关信息以形成明确的假设，从而更合理地决定检查项目的申请并对检查结果进行分析。这反过来有可能降低患者风险和医疗成本。本视频将演示每位医生必须采取的一些重要步骤，以确保体格检查以安全且细致的方式进行。体格检查可以是全面的或特定的，但每次检查前后总体步骤保持不变。让我们详细回顾这些步骤。首先，应通过消毒检查过程中可能接触的表面，为患者准备好检查室。此外，医生应消毒听诊器或叩诊锤等可能在检查中使用的器械。每次检查前，均需用肥皂和水洗手，或使用局部消毒液。如果患者患有已知的特定感染，则应通过获取必要的防护设备来采取相应的防控措施。确保手套的袖口覆盖住隔离衣袖口，避免皮肤暴露。患者入室就座后，应敲门并征得患者同意后方可进入。向患者介绍自己的姓名及职务。请陪同患者前来就诊的家属或朋友暂时离开诊室，以便获得与患者单独交流的重要机会。确保检查室的窗帘已拉好，房门已关闭。在与患者交谈时，应对其整体健康状况进行一般性观察，包括：外貌与所述年龄是否相符、整体健康状况、意识清醒程度、情绪表现、思维内容与思维逻辑，以及感知觉情况。初次交谈后，确定检查中必要的项目。确保患者穿着适合计划检查的衣物。如有必要，为患者提供检查服和盖布，并给予其更换衣物的时间。过一段时间后，敲门并请求患者允许进入房间。请患者躺在检查床上。根据需要调整检查床背部的角度，以方便您进行操作。体格检查可分为以下部分：一般状况观察、生命体征测量、神经系统功能与精神状态评估、头面部、眼、耳、鼻、咽喉、胸部、肺部、淋巴结、心血管系统、腹部、肌肉骨骼系统、皮肤、泌尿生殖系统以及直肠检查。若需进行敏感部位检查，如泌尿生殖系统、直肠或乳腺检查，可能需要安排见证人在场。向患者解释将要进行的体格检查，并征求其同意以继续检查。“我已经解释了接下来要进行的操作，现在可以开始检查了吗？”每一项检查都包含一系列操作，运用视诊、叩诊、触诊和听诊等技术，这些技术在本系列的独立视频中均有详细讲解。应尽量将需要相同体位的操作集中进行，以减少患者反复改变体位。检查结束后，请患者穿回日常衣物。建议在患者穿衣完毕后再提供医疗建议或意见。随后，结合患者病史和体格检查所获得的信息，评估特定体征的有无对疾病概率的影响，从而决定是否开始治疗或有目的地安排进一步检查。您刚刚观看了 JoVE 关于体格检查一般方法的视频。本视频回顾了在现代临床诊疗中体格检查的重要性，并演示了确保检查以安全且人性化的方式进行的一些关键步骤。检查前的重要准备工作有助于降低感染风险，而有条理地实施操作手法可最大限度减少患者不必要的体位变动。鉴于目前对控制医疗成本、患者安全和服务可及性的重视，体格检查仍然是一种经济、广泛可用且几乎无不良反应风险的方法。一如既往，感谢观看！

Education

教育

JoVE Science Education

Clinical Skills

临床技能

Physical Examinations I

体格检查 I

物理考试的一般方法

why physical exams still matter

Physical examination remains an important part of medicine. Doctors have used the body exam for centuries to connect changes in body function with disease. Even with modern imaging and lab tests, the bedside exam still helps clinicians understand what may be happening in the patient.

Physical examination is not a replacement for tests, and it does not answer every question. Some maneuvers that were once highly valued may have limited usefulness. Still, many conditions can only be found through physical examination, and diagnoses made with labs or imaging usually begin with findings from the bedside.

As a provider performs the history and physical, they form and check ideas, or hypotheses, about the patient’s condition. These ideas help guide which tests to order and which questions to ask next. That can make testing more focused, reduce risk for the patient, and help lower health care costs.

The physical exam also supports the therapeutic relationship. By using careful and respectful touch, the clinician can show attention and sensitivity. This process can build rapport and may help promote healing during the patient encounter.

Why Physical Exams Still Matter

general approach to the physical exam

Physical examination remains an important part of medicine. Doctors have used the body exam for centuries to connect changes in body function with disease. Even with modern imaging and lab tests, the bedside exam still helps clinicians understand what may be happening in the patient. Physical examination is not a replacement for tests, and it does not answer every question. Some maneuvers that were once highly valued may have limited usefulness. Still, many conditions can only be found through...

observation and inspection

Clinical Observation in Physical Exam

Clinical observation is the starting point of a physical examination and begins at the first contact with a patient. Observation is a broad term for using the senses carefully to gather information. Inspection is a narrower term. It refers to what can be seen with the eyes, especially on the surface of the body, rather than to behavior. Skilled clinicians use more than sight when they examine a patient. They also rely on touch, through palpation and percussion, and on hearing, through...

palpation

How Hand Position Guides Palpation

Palpation uses touch to collect diagnostic information during the physical exam. It is one of the ways a healthcare provider uses the senses to learn more about a patient. The part of the hand used for palpation changes depending on the body area being examined. Finger pads are best for fine detail. Their dense sensory nerves help the examiner feel small features, such as the borders of masses or lymph nodes. The back of the hand, also called the dorsal surface, gives a rough sense of relative...

percussion

Clinical Percussion and Body Sound

Clinical percussion uses tapping to create sound and help assess what lies beneath the body surface. It is a simple bedside technique that depends on the way sound changes when it travels through different tissues. The method began with Leopold Auenbrugger, an Austrian inn-keeper's son, who found that tapping beer barrels could help him take inventory. He later applied the same idea to patients in Vienna and published the first description of its diagnostic use in 1761. Jean-Nicolas Corvisart...

auscultation

Stethoscope Sounds in Clinical Exam

Auscultation is a clinical exam method that lets a provider listen to sounds inside the body. Doctors use it to gather important diagnostic information from the chest, heart, abdomen, and blood vessels. For many years, auscultation meant immediate auscultation. In that method, the examiner placed an ear directly on the patient's skin. This approach was used for centuries, but it became less useful in nineteenth-century France because of social norms and poor diagnostic yield. René Laënnec...

proper adjustment of patient attire during the physical exam

proper-adjustment-of-patient-attire-during-the-physical-exam

Draping for a Better Physical Exam

Draping is an important part of a careful physical exam. It helps the provider examine the right body area while also protecting patient modesty. Good draping takes practice because the examiner must balance exposure with comfort. Correct technique also improves the accuracy of the exam. Skin lesions can be missed if inspection is done through clothing. Lung crackles may be reported by mistake when the chest is examined through a T-shirt, and subtle heart findings can be missed when...

blood pressure measurement

Manual Blood Pressure Reading Steps

Blood pressure reading uses an indirect method to measure the pressure of blood against vessel walls. Blood pressure, or BP, is a vital sign that is checked routinely in hospital and outpatient settings. It is one of the most common medical assessments performed around the world. The indirect method is non-invasive, safe, and easily reproducible, so it is used most often. BP can be measured automatically by oscillometry or manually by auscultation. Auscultation uses a sphygmomanometer, which...

measuring vital signs

Vital Sign Ranges and Patient Status

Vital signs are objective measurements that show a patient’s clinical status. The commonly accepted vital signs are blood pressure, heart rate, temperature, respiratory rate, and oxygen saturation. In many practices, pain is also treated as the sixth vital sign and is documented with the others. Pain is different from the other vital signs because it is a subjective measurement. That means the pain scale can vary from one patient to another. A vital signs assessment includes heart rate, blood...

respiratory exam i: inspection and palpation

respiratory-exam-i-inspection-and-palpation

Checking Breathing Distress by Exam

Respiratory exam starts with looking for breathing distress and feeling the chest. Shortness of breath is a common reason for both outpatient and inpatient evaluation. Early inspection can reveal fast breathing or cyanosis, which is a bluish color change that can signal low oxygen. If a patient shows respiratory distress, the situation needs urgent attention and oxygen therapy. In many cases, careful clinical examination can help identify lung problems without relying only on tests. This is...

respiratory exam ii: percussion and auscultation

respiratory-exam-ii-percussion-and-auscultation

Respiratory Exam: Lung Sounds and Percussion

Respiratory exam skills include percussion and auscultation of the lungs. These techniques help identify lung problems during a physical exam. Percussion uses tapping to assess the chest, and auscultation uses a stethoscope to listen for breath sounds. Percussion is a useful skill that is often skipped in routine clinical practice. When it is done correctly, it can help a physician detect underlying lung pathology. Auscultation can also give an almost immediate clue to several acute pulmonary...

cardiac exam i: inspection and palpation

Cardiac Exam I: Checking the Chest First

Cardiac exam inspection and palpation are the first steps in a careful heart assessment. These steps help a physician gather useful information before using a stethoscope. They are part of the core examination performed when a patient is first seen. Heart and circulatory disorders are common reasons for hospital admission. They can include conditions such as myocardial infarction and congestive heart failure. Because of this, learning a complete cardiac examination is important for any...

cardiac exam ii: auscultation

Listening for Normal and Abnormal Heart Sounds

Heart auscultation uses a stethoscope to listen to heart sounds and check for normal and abnormal patterns. For physicians, knowing how to hear these sounds and tell them apart is an essential skill. The sound heard at each spot on the chest relates to the closing of specific heart valves. The heart has two main sounds, called S1 and S2. S1 happens when the mitral and tricuspid valves, which are the atrioventricular valves, close after blood enters the ventricles. This marks the start of...

cardiac exam iii: abnormal heart sounds

Heart Murmurs and Gallop Sounds

Heart murmurs and gallop sounds are abnormal heart sounds that can be heard during auscultation, or listening to the heart with a stethoscope. A good understanding of normal heart sounds is the first step in telling normal sounds apart from abnormal ones. Murmurs usually have a swishing quality and point to turbulent blood flow across a heart valve. Murmurs can happen because a valve is too narrow, which is called stenosis, or because blood leaks backward across the valve, which is called...

peripheral vascular exam

Assessing PAD and Venous Signs

Peripheral vascular disease can affect blood flow in the arms and legs, and careful exam steps help reveal signs of disease. Peripheral artery disease (PAD) is linked to cardiovascular and cerebrovascular complications. Risk factors include diabetes, hyperlipidemia, hypertension, and tobacco use. Symptoms may appear as limb claudication, which is cramp-like muscle pain that gets worse with activity and better with rest. Chronic venous insufficiency (CVI) can cause lower extremity swelling,...

peripheral vascular exam using a continuous wave doppler

peripheral-vascular-exam-using-a-continuous-wave-doppler

Bedside Doppler for Leg Blood Flow Checks

Peripheral vascular disease affects the arteries and veins outside the heart, and it is common in older adults. History and physical exam can suggest the diagnosis, but Doppler ultrasound is now a routine part of the bedside vascular exam. This lesson focuses on bedside assessment of peripheral arterial disease and chronic venous insufficiency with a handheld continuous wave Doppler. A handheld Doppler is a simple tool that sends and receives ultrasound at the same time. It detects changes in...

physical examinations i

本系列为进行体检提供了基础;从测量血压或生命体征, 到关键的肺和心血管物理检查的技术不等。

Learn why the physical exam remains a key part of medicine, from bedside diagnosis and hypothesis testing to building patient trust and rapport.

Why Physical Exams Still Matter | JoVE K12

Jaideep Talwalkar

Internal Medicine

Yale School of Medicine

Overview

General Steps During Any Physical Examination

Summary

Characteristics of Life

Biology is a natural science that studies life and living organisms, including their structure, function, development, interactions, evolution, ...

https://cloudfront.jove.com/files/media/science-education/science-education-thumbs/10647.jpg

Cell Structure

Background
Cells represent the most basic biological units of all organisms, whether it be simple, single-celled organisms like bacteria, or large, ...

Visualizing Onion and Cheek Cells
ExpandImmediately before the experiment, wash and peel onion bulbs for the class.
Remove the entire brown outer skin and ...

Visualizing Onion and Human Cells
ExpandIn this experiment you will prepare different types of cells from a plant and animal, onion and human ...

What are Cells?

Cell Diversity

The concept of a cell started with microscopic observations of dead cork tissue by Robert Hooke in 1665. Hooke coined the term &#34;cell&#34; based on the ...

Cytoplasm

The cytoplasm consists of organelles and a framework of protein scaffolds called the cytoskeleton suspended in an aqueous solution, the cytosol. The ...

The Nucleus

The nucleus is a membrane-bound organelle that acts as a control center in a eukaryotic cell. It contains chromosomal DNA, which controls gene expression ...

The Central Dogma

The DNA Helix

Nucleic Acids

DNA as a Genetic Template

Structure of a Gene

A gene is the fundamental unit of heredity. Every individual has two copies of each gene, one inherited from each parent. Although most people contain the ...

Chromosome Structure

Base-pairing and DNA Repair

What is Gene Expression?

A gene is a stretch of DNA that serves as the blueprint for functional RNAs and proteins. Since DNA is comprised&#160; of nucleotides and proteins are ...

RNA Structure

The basic structure of RNA consists of a string of ribonucleotides attached by phosphodiester bonds. Although most RNA is single-stranded, it can form ...

Types of RNA

Three main types of RNA are involved in protein synthesis: messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). These RNAs perform diverse ...

Transcription

Transcription is the synthesis of RNA from a DNA sequence by RNA polymerase. It is the first step in producing a protein from a gene sequence. ...

Translation

Translation is the process of synthesizing proteins from the genetic information carried by messenger RNA (mRNA). Following transcription, it constitutes ...

Ribosomes

Ribosomes translate genetic information encoded by messenger RNA (mRNA) into proteins. Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have ribosomes. Cells that ...

Protein and Protein Structures

Proteins: From Genes to Degradation

From DNA to Protein

The flow of genetic information in cells from DNA to mRNA to protein is described by the central dogma, which states that genes specify the sequence of ...

Protein Folding

Proteins are chains of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. Upon synthesis, a protein folds into a three-dimensional conformation, critical to ...

An Overview of Gene Expression

Gene expression is the complex process where a cell uses its genetic information to make functional products. This process is regulated at multiple ...

an-introduction-to-caenorhabditis-elegans

An Introduction to Caenorhabditis elegans

Caenorhabditis elegans is a microscopic, soil-dwelling roundworm that has been powerfully used as a model organism since the early 1970&rsquo;s.  It was ...

An Overview of Genetic Analysis

An organism&#8217;s physical traits, or phenotype, are a product of its genotype, which is the combination of alleles (gene variants) inherited from its ...

An Introduction to Cell Death

Necrosis, apoptosis, and autophagic cell death are all manners in which cells can die, and these mechanisms can be induced by different stimuli, such as ...

An Overview of Genetic Engineering

Genetic engineering &#8211; the process of purposefully altering an organism&#8217;s DNA &#8211; has been used to create powerful research tools and model ...

An Introduction to Cell Division

Cell division is the process by which a parent cell divides and gives rise to two or more daughter cells. It is a means of reproduction for single-cell ...

An Overview of Genetics and Disease

Many human diseases are associated with mutations or variations in genetic sequences. Some of these genetic variants are heritable, passed down from ...

an-introduction-to-cellular-and-molecular-neuroscience

An Introduction to Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience

Cellular and molecular neuroscience is one of the newest and fastest growing subdisciplines in neuroscience. By investigating the influences of genes, ...

Annexin V and Propidium Iodide Labeling

Staining with annexin V and propidium iodide (PI) provides researchers with a way to identify different types of cell death&#8212;either necrosis or ...

an-introduction-to-developmental-genetics

An Introduction to Developmental Genetics

Development is the complex process through which a single-celled embryo transforms into a multicellular organism. Developmental processes are guided by ...

Bacterial Transformation: Electroporation

The term &#x201C;transformation&#x201D; refers cellular ingestion of foreign DNA.  In nature, transformation can occur in certain types of bacteria.  In ...

an-introduction-to-molecular-developmental-biology

An Introduction to Molecular Developmental Biology

Molecular signals play a major role in the complex processes occurring during embryonic development. These signals regulate activities such as cell ...

bacterial-transformation-the-heat-shock-method

Bacterial Transformation: The Heat Shock Method

Transformation is the process that occurs when a cell ingests foreign DNA from its surroundings. Transformation can occur in nature in certain types of ...

an-introduction-to-saccharomyces-cerevisiae

An Introduction to Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Saccharomyces cerevisiae (commonly known as baker&rsquo;s yeast) is a single-celled eukaryote that is frequently used in scientific research.  S. ...

Cell Cycle Analysis

Cell cycle refers to the set of events through which a cell grows, replicates its genome, and ultimately divides into two daughter cells through the ...

An Introduction to Transfection

Transfection is the process of inserting genetic material, such as DNA and double stranded RNA, into mammalian cells. The insertion of DNA into a cell ...

Chromatin Immunoprecipitation

Histones are proteins that help organize DNA in eukaryotic nuclei by serving as &#8220;scaffolds&#8221; around which DNA can be wrapped, forming a complex ...

An Overview of Epigenetics

Since the early days of genetics research, scientists have noted certain heritable phenotypic differences that are not due to differences in the ...

community-dna-extraction-from-bacterial-colonies

Community DNA Extraction from Bacterial Colonies

Source: Laboratories of Dr. Ian Pepper and Dr. Charles Gerba - The University of Arizona
Demonstrating Author: Luisa Ikner
Traditional methods of analysis ...

Cytogenetics

Cytogenetics is the field of study devoted to chromosomes, and involves the direct observation of a cell&#8217;s chromosomal number and structure, ...

embryonic-stem-cell-culture-and-differentiation

Embryonic Stem Cell Culture and Differentiation

Culturing embryonic stem (ES) cells requires conditions that maintain these cells in an undifferentiated state to preserve their capacity for self-renewal ...

DNA Gel Electrophoresis

DNA gel electrophoresis is a technique used for the detection and separation of DNA molecules. An electric field is applied to a gel matrix comprised of ...

Enzyme Assays and Kinetics

Enzyme kinetics describes the catalytic effects of enzymes, which are biomolecules that facilitate chemical reactions necessary for living organisms. ...

DNA Ligation Reactions

In molecular biology, ligation refers to the joining of two DNA fragments through the formation of a phosphodiester bond.  An enzyme known as a ligase ...

explant-culture-for-developmental-studies

Explant Culture for Developmental Studies

Explant culture is a technique in which living cells or tissues are removed from an embryo for continued development outside of the organism. This ex vivo ...

DNA Methylation Analysis

Methylation at CpG dinucleotides is a chemical modification of DNA hypothesized to play important roles in regulating gene expression. In particular, the ...

Expression Profiling with Microarrays

Microarrays are important tools for profiling gene expression, and are based on complementary binding between probes that are attached to glass chips and ...

Density Gradient Ultracentrifugation

Density gradient ultracentrifugation is a common technique used to isolate and purify biomolecules and cell structures. This technique exploits the fact ...

F&#246;rster Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET)

F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET) is a phenomenon used to investigate close-range biochemical interactions. In FRET, a donor photoluminescent ...

detecting-environmental-microorganisms-with-polymerase-chain-reaction

Detecting Environmental Microorganisms with the Polymerase Chain Reaction and Gel Electrophoresis

Source: Laboratories of Dr. Ian Pepper and Dr. Charles Gerba - Arizona University
Demonstrating Author: Bradley Schmitz
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is ...

Gel Purification

Gel purification is used to recover DNA fragments after electrophoretic separation. DNA recovery from an agarose gel includes three basic steps: binding, ...

Detecting Reactive Oxygen Species

Reactive oxygen species are chemically active, oxygen-derived molecules capable of oxidizing other molecules. Because of their reactive nature, there are ...

Gene Silencing with Morpholinos

Morpholino-mediated gene silencing is a common technique used to study roles of specific genes during development. Morpholinos inhibit gene expression by ...

development-and-reproduction-of-the-laboratory-mouse

Development and Reproduction of the Laboratory Mouse

Successful breeding of the laboratory mouse (Mus musculus) is critical to the establishment and maintenance of a productive animal colony. Additionally, ...

Construct an explanation based on evidence for how the structure of DNA determines the structure of proteins which carry out the essential functions of life through systems of specialized cells.

HS-LS1-1.

Why Physical Exams Still Matter

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