Name: clinical observation in physical exam
Uploaded: 2023-04-30T06:40:12.000Z
Duration: 5 min 2 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

new-york-state-science-learning-standards

New York State Science Learning Standards

High School

Life Science

Structure and Function

HS-LS1-3.

Observation and Inspection

在临床诊疗过程中，观察是一项持续进行的工作。操作步骤中列出的许多项目通常是在有合适机会时同步完成的。本操作流程强调了观察的各个组成部分，但并非意在规定某种推荐的顺序。
1. 一般性调查
<ol>
	<li>注意患者的一般健康状况。患者的外貌是否与其自述年龄相符？患者看起来是否健康强壮，还是虚弱 frail？</li>
	<li>注意其意识水平（例如，清醒、警觉或嗜睡）。</li>
	<li>观察有无疼痛的迹象。注意面部表情、保护性动作、出汗等情况。</li>
	<li>观察有无呼吸困难的迹象。患者能否毫不费力地完整说出句子？患者是否呈“三脚架”姿势（&#34;tripoding&#34;，即身体前倾、手臂支撑）？是否可见辅助呼吸肌的使用？</li>
	<li>观察有无情绪困扰的迹象。患者是否过度焦躁不安、表现出普遍的精神运动迟缓或哭泣？目光接触是否恰当？</li>
	<li>注意患者的衣着、首饰、纹身、仪容、卫生状况以及其他可能反映其医学、社会和情绪状况的特征。</li>
	<li>记录一般观察中可能发现的任何病理征象，如皮肤病变、脂肪分布异常、听力缺陷、肌肉萎缩、异常气味等。</li>
</ol>
2. 器官特异性观察
在体格检查的其余部分，需通过主动观察对各个器官系统进行检查。对于某些器官系统，视诊需要使用特定器械（例如，耳镜或检眼镜）。具体细节请参考各器官系统的相关视频。
3. 皮肤检查
详细检查是皮肤检查的主要组成部分。完整的皮肤检查应包括对所有身体前侧、后侧和侧面表面以及黏膜的检查。某些部位的检查需要进行操作才能完成，这些部位包括毛发、头皮、乳突、耳后区、外耳道、鼻孔、腋窝、指甲、睑结膜、口腔黏膜、乳房下缘、悬垂腹下方的皮肤、生殖器表面、阴道黏膜以及臀裂。
<ol>
	<li>观察每个检查部位皮肤或黏膜的颜色。常见表现包括色素减退或色素沉着区域、苍白（眼睑结膜、手掌、足底和甲床）、发绀（甲床、嘴唇及口周）以及黄疸（巩膜、皮肤和黏膜）。</li>
	<li>在每个检查部位，还需注意皮肤的湿润程度（即干燥或油腻）、弹性及质地。</li>
</ol>
4. 精神状态检查
<ol>
	<li>观察患者的外貌和行为，包括姿势、衣着、面部表情、运动活动、习惯性动作、身体特征以及在检查期间对所提问题的反应。</li>
	<li>注意言语的流利程度、语速和音量。</li>
	<li>评估患者的情感表现，包括情感范围、恰当性、强度和反应能力。应将检查者对情感表现的客观评估与通过直接询问获得的患者对心境的主观描述进行比较。</li>
	<li>评估患者的思想过程，包括组织水平、有无离题、思维松散等要素，以及 &#34;思维奔逸&#34;</li>
	<li>评估患者的思想内容和感知，但这些通常不能仅通过观察完成，可能需要进行特定提问。思想内容包括强迫观念、焦虑、恐惧症、躯体关注、妄想以及被害、被控制和关系妄想。感知包括幻觉、现实解体和人格解体。</li>
	<li>注意患者认知功能。若检查者留意观察，可发现注意力、定向力、记忆力、判断力和自知力异常的线索，但可能需要使用特定问题和经过验证的评估工具来量化功能缺损。</li>
	<li>使用具体问题评估自杀意念和杀人意念。</li>
</ol>
5. 附加观察
<ol>
	<li>某些检查场所可提供了解患者社会支持、兴趣爱好及生活方式的机会。当在患者停留超过数小时的场所（例如，病房、养老院、家中）进行访视时，应注意观察是否有装饰物、慰问卡片、家庭照片、书籍等物品的存在（或缺失），以增进对患者非患者角色之外生活的理解。</li>
	<li>当患者有家属或朋友陪同在场时，应注意观察人际互动情况。这种观察机会可提供有关患者的重要信息。家属是否代替患者发言？患者在回答问题前是否会先看向家属寻求确认？</li>
	<li>应注意自己在患者面前的情绪感受，因为这可能具有诊断价值，尤其是在精神疾病方面。尽管医务人员需警惕反移情的陷阱，但如果患者引发的情绪反应非同寻常或难以解释，则可能提示患者存在潜在的心理健康问题。例如，临床医生在问诊过程中出现非典型的悲伤感，可能提示应考虑重度抑郁障碍的诊断。</li>
</ol>
<div class="chapter_text" id="script_0">
	观察与视诊是任何临床检查的基础。一般性观察从首次接触患者时即开始，并贯穿整个临床诊疗过程，即使只是与患者交谈时也在持续进行。视诊则更具目的性，主要局限于通过视觉可观察到的内容，用于检查皮肤、眼睛或耳朵等特定身体部位，有时需借助专用设备辅助。
	本文将展示临床医生在每次临床诊疗过程中应考虑进行的一般性观察，随后介绍与视觉检查步骤相关的一些注意事项。
</div>
<div class="chapter_text" id="script_1">
	首先，让我们回顾一下临床医生在接诊任何患者时都应牢记的一些一般性观察步骤。这些观察可在检查过程中的任何时间进行。
	在患者初次叙述病情时，应注意其身体状况，并自问：“患者的外貌与所述年龄是否相符？患者看起来健康强壮，还是虚弱憔悴？患者是否清醒且反应灵敏，还是嗜睡？” 同时评估患者的精神状态和情感表现，并判断其思维是否条理清晰。
	在交谈过程中，医生还可评估患者的思维内容和感知情况。此外，应注意是否存在情绪痛苦的迹象，例如过度焦躁不安或眼神接触不足。同时，留意自己在患者面前的感受，因为这可能具有诊断价值。例如，医生若出现非典型的悲伤情绪，可能提示应考虑重度抑郁障碍的诊断。此外，在交谈中应通过观察面部表情，并注意患者是否有保护性动作或出汗等自主神经征象，以识别疼痛的迹象。还应观察患者的个人卫生、衣着、化妆等情况，以获取有助于诊断的额外线索。另外，应注意是否存在呼吸困难的体征。注意患者能否毫不费力地完整说出句子。观察患者是否呈“三脚架体位”，即身体前倾、手臂支撑。注意是否可见辅助呼吸肌的使用，这在呼吸困难患者中较为常见。
	综上所述，这些简单的观察可为了解患者的身体和精神状态提供重要线索，并有助于疾病的诊断。
</div>
<div class="chapter_text" id="script_2">
	了解了一般性观察之后，接下来我们来看视诊，这是全面且针对特定器官的体格检查中的关键环节。
	首先，向患者说明视诊的目的并获得其同意。如前所述，视诊是通过肉眼观察体表，以检查是否存在任何异常。在进行全面皮肤检查时，必须视诊所有前侧、侧方和后侧的体表区域以及黏膜。注意记录每个检查部位皮肤或黏膜的颜色。常见发现包括色素减退或色素沉着区域、苍白、发绀和黄疸。同时，还需检查皮肤的水合程度、弹性（皮褶回弹）和质地。
	视诊主要依靠肉眼仔细观察身体不同部位的体表。有时，对于肉眼无法直接观察的结构，需要使用特殊设备。例如，检查鼓膜时必须使用耳镜。某些身体部位的视诊需要配合操作手法。例如，在检查头皮时，医生可能需要拨开患者的头发以暴露头皮表面。应记录每个检查部位的视诊结果，并结合其他观察结果及患者的病史，以帮助推断可能的疾病。每次检查结束时，应感谢患者的配合。
</div>
<div class="chapter_text" id="script_3">
	您刚刚观看了 JoVE 关于患者接诊过程中一般观察与视诊的视频。
	综合来看，观察与视诊技能在临床诊断中起着至关重要的作用。本文回顾了每次临床接诊都应包含的一系列特定观察内容。此外，我们还讨论了视诊，这是任何体格检查中的重要组成部分，有助于床旁诊断。一如既往，感谢您的观看！
</div>

观察是患者接诊过程中的重要组成部分，从与患者首次接触时即开始。观察涉及在检查过程中运用自身感官所获得的信息，包括体征以及行为、情境和辅助性观察。一组特定的观察构成一般观察评估，这应作为每次患者接诊的必要部分。在体格检查的各个器官特异性环节中，还会进行额外的观察，其中视诊构成了皮肤检查的主要部分。除了对患者的直接观察外，经验丰富的临床医生还会关注患者周围环境和社会关系中的信息，以及患者可能引发的自身情绪反应，这些均属于优质患者照护的组成部分。

观察与检查

来源： <a href="https://www.jove.com/author/Jaideep+S._Talwalkar">Jaideep S. Talwalkar</a>，医学博士，内科学与儿科学，耶鲁大学医学院，康涅狄格州纽黑文
观察与视诊是体格检查的基础，始于与患者的首次接触。尽管“观察”与“视诊”常被互换使用，但“观察”是一个广义术语，指运用各种感官细致地获取信息；而“视诊”则仅限于通过视觉所能察觉的内容，在体格检查中通常指身体表面的发现，而非行为表现。熟练的临床医师会充分利用各种感官来全面了解患者情况，主要依赖视觉、触觉（叩诊与触诊）和听觉（叩诊与听诊）。嗅觉在接诊过程中亦可提供重要的诊断线索。例如个人卫生、物质使用或代谢性疾病）。幸运的是，在现代医学中，味觉检查已基本成为历史遗迹，尽管值得注意的是，糖尿病在数个世纪以来曾通过尿液的甜味进行诊断。通过长期实践，临床医生会发展出一种重要的“第六感”——直觉，这种直觉只能通过多年在数千名患者身上有意识地磨练临床技能而获得。临床医生的直觉主要基于床旁观察，已被证明是判断严重疾病的重要预测指标。本视频以及临床技能视频系列中的其他视频，正是迈向掌握这一层次能力的重要步骤。

来源：Jaideep S. Talwalkar，医学博士，内科与儿科，耶鲁大学医学院，康涅狄格州纽黑文市  
观察与视诊是……的基础

观察与视诊是任何临床检查的基础。一般性观察从首次接触患者时即开始，并贯穿整个临床诊疗过程，甚至在与患者交谈时也在持续进行。视诊则更具目的性，仅限于通过视觉可观察到的内容，用于检查皮肤、眼睛或耳朵等特定身体部位，有时需借助专用设备辅助。本文阐述了临床医生在每次临床诊疗过程中应考虑进行的一般性观察，随后介绍了一些与视觉检查步骤相关的注意事项。首先，让我们回顾一下临床医生在接诊任何患者时都应牢记的一些一般性观察步骤。这些观察可在检查过程中的任何时间进行。在患者初次描述病情时，应注意其身体状况，并思考以下问题：“患者的外貌与所述年龄是否相符？患者看起来健康强壮，还是虚弱憔悴？患者是否清醒且反应灵敏，还是嗜睡？” 同时，评估其精神状态和情感表现，并判断其思维是否条理清晰。在交谈过程中，医生还可以评估患者的思想内容和感知情况。此外，应注意观察是否存在情绪痛苦的迹象，例如过度烦躁不安或眼神接触不足。同时，注意自己在患者面前的情绪感受，因为这可能具有诊断价值。临床医生出现异常的悲伤感时，应考虑重度抑郁障碍的可能。此外，在交谈中应通过观察面部表情，以及注意患者是否表现出保护性动作或自主神经症状（如出汗），来识别疼痛的迹象。还应留意患者的个人卫生、衣着、妆容等情况，以获取有助于诊断的额外线索。另外，应注意是否存在呼吸困难的体征。注意患者是否能够毫不费力地用完整句子说话。观察患者是否有“三脚架样姿势”，即身体前倾并用手臂支撑。注意是否可见辅助呼吸肌的使用，这在呼吸困难的情况下较为常见。综合这些简单的观察结果，可以深入了解患者的身心状况，并有助于疾病的诊断。了解了一般性观察之后，让我们来探讨检查，这是全面且针对特定器官的体格检查中的关键环节。首先，向患者说明视诊的目的并获得其同意。如前所述，视诊包括通过肉眼观察体表以检查是否存在任何异常。在进行全面的皮肤检查时，必须检查所有前侧、侧方和后侧的体表区域以及黏膜。注意记录每个检查部位的皮肤或黏膜颜色。常见发现包括色素减退或色素沉着区域、苍白、发绀和黄疸。同时，检查皮肤的水分状况、弹性及质地。检查通常需要仔细用肉眼观察身体表面的不同区域。有时，对于肉眼无法直接观察的结构，需要借助特殊设备进行检查。例如，检查鼓膜时必须使用耳镜。身体的某些部位需要通过操作配合完成检查。例如，在检查头皮时，医生可能需要拨开患者的头发以暴露头皮表面。应记录每个检查部位的观察结果，并结合其他观察发现和患者的病史来推断可能的疾病。每次检查结束时，应感谢患者的合作。您刚刚观看了 JoVE 关于患者接诊过程中进行一般观察和检查的视频。综上所述，观察能力和检查技能在临床诊断中起着至关重要的作用。本文回顾了一组应包含在每次临床诊疗过程中的特定观察项目。此外，我们还讨论了体格检查中的重要环节——视诊，其有助于床旁诊断。一如既往，感谢观看！

Education

教育

JoVE Science Education

Clinical Skills

临床技能

Physical Examinations I

体格检查 I

观察和检查

clinical observation in physical exam

Clinical observation is the starting point of a physical examination and begins at the first contact with a patient. Observation is a broad term for using the senses carefully to gather information. Inspection is a narrower term. It refers to what can be seen with the eyes, especially on the surface of the body, rather than to behavior.

Skilled clinicians use more than sight when they examine a patient. They also rely on touch, through palpation and percussion, and on hearing, through auscultation and percussion. Smell can add useful clues as well. It may point to poor personal hygiene, substance use, or metabolic diseases.

Taste is mostly a historical part of medicine. For many centuries, diabetes mellitus was even diagnosed by the sweet taste of urine. Over time, clinicians also develop a sixth sense, often called gut instinct. This skill comes from deliberate practice on thousands of patients over many years. It is based largely on bedside observations and can help predict serious illness.

Clinical Observation in Physical Exam

general approach to the physical exam

Why Physical Exams Still Matter

Physical examination remains an important part of medicine. Doctors have used the body exam for centuries to connect changes in body function with disease. Even with modern imaging and lab tests, the bedside exam still helps clinicians understand what may be happening in the patient. Physical examination is not a replacement for tests, and it does not answer every question. Some maneuvers that were once highly valued may have limited usefulness. Still, many conditions can only be found through...

observation and inspection

Clinical observation is the starting point of a physical examination and begins at the first contact with a patient. Observation is a broad term for using the senses carefully to gather information. Inspection is a narrower term. It refers to what can be seen with the eyes, especially on the surface of the body, rather than to behavior. Skilled clinicians use more than sight when they examine a patient. They also rely on touch, through palpation and percussion, and on hearing, through...

palpation

How Hand Position Guides Palpation

Palpation uses touch to collect diagnostic information during the physical exam. It is one of the ways a healthcare provider uses the senses to learn more about a patient. The part of the hand used for palpation changes depending on the body area being examined. Finger pads are best for fine detail. Their dense sensory nerves help the examiner feel small features, such as the borders of masses or lymph nodes. The back of the hand, also called the dorsal surface, gives a rough sense of relative...

percussion

Clinical Percussion and Body Sound

Clinical percussion uses tapping to create sound and help assess what lies beneath the body surface. It is a simple bedside technique that depends on the way sound changes when it travels through different tissues. The method began with Leopold Auenbrugger, an Austrian inn-keeper's son, who found that tapping beer barrels could help him take inventory. He later applied the same idea to patients in Vienna and published the first description of its diagnostic use in 1761. Jean-Nicolas Corvisart...

auscultation

Stethoscope Sounds in Clinical Exam

Auscultation is a clinical exam method that lets a provider listen to sounds inside the body. Doctors use it to gather important diagnostic information from the chest, heart, abdomen, and blood vessels. For many years, auscultation meant immediate auscultation. In that method, the examiner placed an ear directly on the patient's skin. This approach was used for centuries, but it became less useful in nineteenth-century France because of social norms and poor diagnostic yield. René Laënnec...

proper adjustment of patient attire during the physical exam

proper-adjustment-of-patient-attire-during-the-physical-exam

Draping for a Better Physical Exam

Draping is an important part of a careful physical exam. It helps the provider examine the right body area while also protecting patient modesty. Good draping takes practice because the examiner must balance exposure with comfort. Correct technique also improves the accuracy of the exam. Skin lesions can be missed if inspection is done through clothing. Lung crackles may be reported by mistake when the chest is examined through a T-shirt, and subtle heart findings can be missed when...

blood pressure measurement

Manual Blood Pressure Reading Steps

Blood pressure reading uses an indirect method to measure the pressure of blood against vessel walls. Blood pressure, or BP, is a vital sign that is checked routinely in hospital and outpatient settings. It is one of the most common medical assessments performed around the world. The indirect method is non-invasive, safe, and easily reproducible, so it is used most often. BP can be measured automatically by oscillometry or manually by auscultation. Auscultation uses a sphygmomanometer, which...

measuring vital signs

Vital Sign Ranges and Patient Status

Vital signs are objective measurements that show a patient’s clinical status. The commonly accepted vital signs are blood pressure, heart rate, temperature, respiratory rate, and oxygen saturation. In many practices, pain is also treated as the sixth vital sign and is documented with the others. Pain is different from the other vital signs because it is a subjective measurement. That means the pain scale can vary from one patient to another. A vital signs assessment includes heart rate, blood...

respiratory exam i: inspection and palpation

respiratory-exam-i-inspection-and-palpation

Checking Breathing Distress by Exam

Respiratory exam starts with looking for breathing distress and feeling the chest. Shortness of breath is a common reason for both outpatient and inpatient evaluation. Early inspection can reveal fast breathing or cyanosis, which is a bluish color change that can signal low oxygen. If a patient shows respiratory distress, the situation needs urgent attention and oxygen therapy. In many cases, careful clinical examination can help identify lung problems without relying only on tests. This is...

respiratory exam ii: percussion and auscultation

respiratory-exam-ii-percussion-and-auscultation

Respiratory Exam: Lung Sounds and Percussion

Respiratory exam skills include percussion and auscultation of the lungs. These techniques help identify lung problems during a physical exam. Percussion uses tapping to assess the chest, and auscultation uses a stethoscope to listen for breath sounds. Percussion is a useful skill that is often skipped in routine clinical practice. When it is done correctly, it can help a physician detect underlying lung pathology. Auscultation can also give an almost immediate clue to several acute pulmonary...

cardiac exam i: inspection and palpation

Cardiac Exam I: Checking the Chest First

Cardiac exam inspection and palpation are the first steps in a careful heart assessment. These steps help a physician gather useful information before using a stethoscope. They are part of the core examination performed when a patient is first seen. Heart and circulatory disorders are common reasons for hospital admission. They can include conditions such as myocardial infarction and congestive heart failure. Because of this, learning a complete cardiac examination is important for any...

cardiac exam ii: auscultation

Listening for Normal and Abnormal Heart Sounds

Heart auscultation uses a stethoscope to listen to heart sounds and check for normal and abnormal patterns. For physicians, knowing how to hear these sounds and tell them apart is an essential skill. The sound heard at each spot on the chest relates to the closing of specific heart valves. The heart has two main sounds, called S1 and S2. S1 happens when the mitral and tricuspid valves, which are the atrioventricular valves, close after blood enters the ventricles. This marks the start of...

cardiac exam iii: abnormal heart sounds

Heart Murmurs and Gallop Sounds

Heart murmurs and gallop sounds are abnormal heart sounds that can be heard during auscultation, or listening to the heart with a stethoscope. A good understanding of normal heart sounds is the first step in telling normal sounds apart from abnormal ones. Murmurs usually have a swishing quality and point to turbulent blood flow across a heart valve. Murmurs can happen because a valve is too narrow, which is called stenosis, or because blood leaks backward across the valve, which is called...

peripheral vascular exam

Assessing PAD and Venous Signs

Peripheral vascular disease can affect blood flow in the arms and legs, and careful exam steps help reveal signs of disease. Peripheral artery disease (PAD) is linked to cardiovascular and cerebrovascular complications. Risk factors include diabetes, hyperlipidemia, hypertension, and tobacco use. Symptoms may appear as limb claudication, which is cramp-like muscle pain that gets worse with activity and better with rest. Chronic venous insufficiency (CVI) can cause lower extremity swelling,...

peripheral vascular exam using a continuous wave doppler

peripheral-vascular-exam-using-a-continuous-wave-doppler

Bedside Doppler for Leg Blood Flow Checks

Peripheral vascular disease affects the arteries and veins outside the heart, and it is common in older adults. History and physical exam can suggest the diagnosis, but Doppler ultrasound is now a routine part of the bedside vascular exam. This lesson focuses on bedside assessment of peripheral arterial disease and chronic venous insufficiency with a handheld continuous wave Doppler. A handheld Doppler is a simple tool that sends and receives ultrasound at the same time. It detects changes in...

physical examinations i

本系列为进行体检提供了基础;从测量血压或生命体征, 到关键的肺和心血管物理检查的技术不等。

Learn how clinicians use observation, inspection, touch, hearing, and smell during a physical exam, and why bedside clues can help detect serious illness.

Clinical Observation in Physical Exam | JoVE K12

Jaideep Talwalkar

Internal Medicine

Yale School of Medicine

Overview

General Observations

Considerations for Inspection

Summary

Characteristics of Life

Biology is a natural science that studies life and living organisms, including their structure, function, development, interactions, evolution, ...

https://cloudfront.jove.com/files/media/science-education/science-education-thumbs/10647.jpg

Cell Structure

Background
Cells represent the most basic biological units of all organisms, whether it be simple, single-celled organisms like bacteria, or large, ...

Visualizing Onion and Cheek Cells
ExpandImmediately before the experiment, wash and peel onion bulbs for the class.
Remove the entire brown outer skin and ...

Visualizing Onion and Human Cells
ExpandIn this experiment you will prepare different types of cells from a plant and animal, onion and human ...

What are Cells?

Cell Diversity

The concept of a cell started with microscopic observations of dead cork tissue by Robert Hooke in 1665. Hooke coined the term &#34;cell&#34; based on the ...

Cytoplasm

The cytoplasm consists of organelles and a framework of protein scaffolds called the cytoskeleton suspended in an aqueous solution, the cytosol. The ...

The Nucleus

The nucleus is a membrane-bound organelle that acts as a control center in a eukaryotic cell. It contains chromosomal DNA, which controls gene expression ...

The Central Dogma

The DNA Helix

Nucleic Acids

DNA as a Genetic Template

Structure of a Gene

A gene is the fundamental unit of heredity. Every individual has two copies of each gene, one inherited from each parent. Although most people contain the ...

Chromosome Structure

Base-pairing and DNA Repair

What is Gene Expression?

A gene is a stretch of DNA that serves as the blueprint for functional RNAs and proteins. Since DNA is comprised&#160; of nucleotides and proteins are ...

RNA Structure

The basic structure of RNA consists of a string of ribonucleotides attached by phosphodiester bonds. Although most RNA is single-stranded, it can form ...

Types of RNA

Three main types of RNA are involved in protein synthesis: messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). These RNAs perform diverse ...

Transcription

Transcription is the synthesis of RNA from a DNA sequence by RNA polymerase. It is the first step in producing a protein from a gene sequence. ...

Translation

Translation is the process of synthesizing proteins from the genetic information carried by messenger RNA (mRNA). Following transcription, it constitutes ...

Ribosomes

Ribosomes translate genetic information encoded by messenger RNA (mRNA) into proteins. Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have ribosomes. Cells that ...

Protein and Protein Structures

Proteins: From Genes to Degradation

From DNA to Protein

The flow of genetic information in cells from DNA to mRNA to protein is described by the central dogma, which states that genes specify the sequence of ...

Protein Folding

Proteins are chains of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. Upon synthesis, a protein folds into a three-dimensional conformation, critical to ...

An Overview of Gene Expression

Gene expression is the complex process where a cell uses its genetic information to make functional products. This process is regulated at multiple ...

an-introduction-to-caenorhabditis-elegans

An Introduction to Caenorhabditis elegans

Caenorhabditis elegans is a microscopic, soil-dwelling roundworm that has been powerfully used as a model organism since the early 1970&rsquo;s.  It was ...

An Overview of Genetic Analysis

An organism&#8217;s physical traits, or phenotype, are a product of its genotype, which is the combination of alleles (gene variants) inherited from its ...

An Introduction to Cell Death

Necrosis, apoptosis, and autophagic cell death are all manners in which cells can die, and these mechanisms can be induced by different stimuli, such as ...

An Overview of Genetic Engineering

Genetic engineering &#8211; the process of purposefully altering an organism&#8217;s DNA &#8211; has been used to create powerful research tools and model ...

An Introduction to Cell Division

Cell division is the process by which a parent cell divides and gives rise to two or more daughter cells. It is a means of reproduction for single-cell ...

An Overview of Genetics and Disease

Many human diseases are associated with mutations or variations in genetic sequences. Some of these genetic variants are heritable, passed down from ...

an-introduction-to-cellular-and-molecular-neuroscience

An Introduction to Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience

Cellular and molecular neuroscience is one of the newest and fastest growing subdisciplines in neuroscience. By investigating the influences of genes, ...

Annexin V and Propidium Iodide Labeling

Staining with annexin V and propidium iodide (PI) provides researchers with a way to identify different types of cell death&#8212;either necrosis or ...

an-introduction-to-developmental-genetics

An Introduction to Developmental Genetics

Development is the complex process through which a single-celled embryo transforms into a multicellular organism. Developmental processes are guided by ...

Bacterial Transformation: Electroporation

The term &#x201C;transformation&#x201D; refers cellular ingestion of foreign DNA.  In nature, transformation can occur in certain types of bacteria.  In ...

an-introduction-to-molecular-developmental-biology

An Introduction to Molecular Developmental Biology

Molecular signals play a major role in the complex processes occurring during embryonic development. These signals regulate activities such as cell ...

bacterial-transformation-the-heat-shock-method

Bacterial Transformation: The Heat Shock Method

Transformation is the process that occurs when a cell ingests foreign DNA from its surroundings. Transformation can occur in nature in certain types of ...

an-introduction-to-saccharomyces-cerevisiae

An Introduction to Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Saccharomyces cerevisiae (commonly known as baker&rsquo;s yeast) is a single-celled eukaryote that is frequently used in scientific research.  S. ...

Cell Cycle Analysis

Cell cycle refers to the set of events through which a cell grows, replicates its genome, and ultimately divides into two daughter cells through the ...

An Introduction to Transfection

Transfection is the process of inserting genetic material, such as DNA and double stranded RNA, into mammalian cells. The insertion of DNA into a cell ...

Chromatin Immunoprecipitation

Histones are proteins that help organize DNA in eukaryotic nuclei by serving as &#8220;scaffolds&#8221; around which DNA can be wrapped, forming a complex ...

An Overview of Epigenetics

Since the early days of genetics research, scientists have noted certain heritable phenotypic differences that are not due to differences in the ...

community-dna-extraction-from-bacterial-colonies

Community DNA Extraction from Bacterial Colonies

Source: Laboratories of Dr. Ian Pepper and Dr. Charles Gerba - The University of Arizona
Demonstrating Author: Luisa Ikner
Traditional methods of analysis ...

Cytogenetics

Cytogenetics is the field of study devoted to chromosomes, and involves the direct observation of a cell&#8217;s chromosomal number and structure, ...

embryonic-stem-cell-culture-and-differentiation

Embryonic Stem Cell Culture and Differentiation

Culturing embryonic stem (ES) cells requires conditions that maintain these cells in an undifferentiated state to preserve their capacity for self-renewal ...

DNA Gel Electrophoresis

DNA gel electrophoresis is a technique used for the detection and separation of DNA molecules. An electric field is applied to a gel matrix comprised of ...

Enzyme Assays and Kinetics

Enzyme kinetics describes the catalytic effects of enzymes, which are biomolecules that facilitate chemical reactions necessary for living organisms. ...

DNA Ligation Reactions

In molecular biology, ligation refers to the joining of two DNA fragments through the formation of a phosphodiester bond.  An enzyme known as a ligase ...

explant-culture-for-developmental-studies

Explant Culture for Developmental Studies

Explant culture is a technique in which living cells or tissues are removed from an embryo for continued development outside of the organism. This ex vivo ...

DNA Methylation Analysis

Methylation at CpG dinucleotides is a chemical modification of DNA hypothesized to play important roles in regulating gene expression. In particular, the ...

Expression Profiling with Microarrays

Microarrays are important tools for profiling gene expression, and are based on complementary binding between probes that are attached to glass chips and ...

Density Gradient Ultracentrifugation

Density gradient ultracentrifugation is a common technique used to isolate and purify biomolecules and cell structures. This technique exploits the fact ...

F&#246;rster Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET)

F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET) is a phenomenon used to investigate close-range biochemical interactions. In FRET, a donor photoluminescent ...

detecting-environmental-microorganisms-with-polymerase-chain-reaction

Detecting Environmental Microorganisms with the Polymerase Chain Reaction and Gel Electrophoresis

Source: Laboratories of Dr. Ian Pepper and Dr. Charles Gerba - Arizona University
Demonstrating Author: Bradley Schmitz
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is ...

Gel Purification

Gel purification is used to recover DNA fragments after electrophoretic separation. DNA recovery from an agarose gel includes three basic steps: binding, ...

Detecting Reactive Oxygen Species

Reactive oxygen species are chemically active, oxygen-derived molecules capable of oxidizing other molecules. Because of their reactive nature, there are ...

Gene Silencing with Morpholinos

Morpholino-mediated gene silencing is a common technique used to study roles of specific genes during development. Morpholinos inhibit gene expression by ...

development-and-reproduction-of-the-laboratory-mouse

Development and Reproduction of the Laboratory Mouse

Successful breeding of the laboratory mouse (Mus musculus) is critical to the establishment and maintenance of a productive animal colony. Additionally, ...

Construct an explanation based on evidence for how the structure of DNA determines the structure of proteins which carry out the essential functions of life through systems of specialized cells.

HS-LS1-1.

Clinical Observation in Physical Exam

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