Name: draping for a better physical exam
Uploaded: 2023-04-30T06:41:48.000Z
Duration: 8 min 10 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

new-york-state-science-learning-standards

New York State Science Learning Standards

High School

Life Science

Structure and Function

HS-LS1-3.

proper-adjustment-of-patient-attire-during-the-physical-exam

Proper Adjustment of Patient Attire during the Physical Exam

1. 患者穿着日常服装时可进行的操作
需要注意的是，某些体格检查项目可在患者穿着便于暴露待检部位的日常衣物时进行。这些操作包括生命体征测量、一般外观评估、头颈部检查（头、眼、耳、鼻和喉）、颈部检查、腹部检查、血管检查以及神经系统检查。
<ol>
	<li>测量生命体征时，需确保能够接触到患者的双臂。</li>
	<li>进行基本的头、眼、耳、鼻、喉（HEENT）检查操作前，应指导患者取下帽子、义齿（若需彻底检查口腔黏膜）、眼镜（检查眼睛时）以及助听器（若需彻底检查耳朵）。HEENT检查不受患者颈部以下穿着的影响。需注意，对言语功能、视力和听力的功能性评估，最好在佩戴义齿、眼镜和助听器的情况下进行。</li>
	<li>确保衣物不妨碍对颈部及锁骨上区域的视诊和触诊（穿着宽松上衣或背心的患者也可完成充分的颈部检查）。</li>
	<li>对于腹部检查，患者可穿着宽松衣物，但应指导其将裤腰向下卷至暴露下腹部，并将上衣上提，以获得最佳暴露视野。</li>
	<li>进行血管检查时，需确保能够接触到各个脉搏搏动部位。除股动脉外，上下肢其他部位的脉搏检查可在需要时将宽松的衣袖或裤管上卷；检查足背动脉搏动时必须脱去袜子。</li>
	<li>神经系统检查的各个项目均可在患者穿着允许四肢视诊和触诊的衣物时进行，但应确保患者脱去鞋袜。</li>
	<li>大多数肌肉骨骼系统的检查可在患者穿着T恤和短裤时完成。肩部检查最好在患者上身赤裸（或仅穿内衣）或穿背心时进行，因为若患者穿着检查服，难以同时完成视诊和诱发性关节活动度测试。</li>
</ol>
2. 提供手术衣和铺巾
<ol>
	<li>某些患者可能接受在脱去上衣的情况下接受检查，这有助于充分暴露颈部、胸部和腹部的结构。为避免女性乳房不必要的暴露，临床医生通常会让患者穿着胸罩进行检查，或使用检查单进行遮盖。本视频演示了已嘱患者脱去胸罩时，采用检查单遮盖的技巧。</li>
	<li>说明如何处理手术衣和铺巾例如为了今天为您做检查，我需要您换上这件病号服，背部要保持敞开。您可以穿着内衣，但请脱掉其他衣物，包括胸罩。您可以盖上这块遮布来保暖。</li>
	<li>患者更换衣物时，请离开房间，除非患者因行动受限需要协助；若需协助，应事先告知患者您离开的大致时间。经验丰富的医务人员在患者更衣时可同时处理其他任务，只要让患者知晓您返回的时间，通常患者不会介意。</li>
</ol>
3. 各种体格检查操作中正确使用检查服和铺巾的注意事项
<ol>
	<li>患者坐在检查床上时，从系好通常位于背部的病号服开始检查，并提供一条盖巾覆盖患者的腿部和下腹部，以保持温暖，并用于后续操作。</li>
	<li>对穿着病号服的患者进行颈部、前胸部和心脏检查——在坐位、仰卧位和站立位时，这些操作的遮盖技术相似。</li>
	<li>解开颈部后方的病号服系带。</li>
	<li>指导患者将病号服肩部稍向下拉，以便充分暴露下颈部和锁骨区域进行检查。</li>
	<li>心脏与呼吸系统检查
	<ol>
		<li>请患者进一步向下拉低病号服几英寸，同时保持乳房覆盖。这有助于充分暴露前胸部和前肺区，以便进行视诊、叩诊、触诊和听诊，同时也便于对心脏的肺动脉区和主动脉区进行视诊、触诊和听诊。</li>
		<li>稍微下拉胸骨处的病号服，以便在Erb点和三尖瓣区进行听诊。三尖瓣区的检查也可采用下文所述的替代方法进行。</li>
		<li>完成该部分检查后，将病号服重新覆盖回肩部。</li>
		<li>在告知患者接下来将检查其“心脏下部”后，抬起患者的病号服，或指导患者自行抬起，以暴露左侧腰部和左上腹区域，从而能够触及锁骨中线上第五肋间隙（二尖瓣区）。如果患者左侧乳房妨碍对该区域的接触，可用左手背将乳房推开，或请患者用右手将左侧乳房下缘提起移开。</li>
		<li>对于检查三尖瓣区的替代方法，在暴露左上腹区域时，可稍微抬起胸骨下缘的病号服。</li>
		<li>当腰部和左上腹区域已暴露，且患者用右手将左侧乳房和病号服固定于一侧时，让患者取左侧卧位，检查二尖瓣区。</li>
		<li>在坐位下检查背部和胸廓后侧及侧部时，将病号服向两侧拨开，以便充分暴露背部、后胸部及后肺区，进行视诊、叩诊、触诊和听诊。</li>
		<li>根据需要，进一步向侧方逐侧拨开病号服，以便检查侧胸壁。</li>
		<li>背部检查可在患者上身裸露（或仅穿内衣）或穿着背部开口的病号服时进行。若患者穿着病号服，则按前述方法进行坐位视诊。</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>步态与站立位关节活动度检查
	<ol>
		<li>在进行步态或站立位关节活动度（如前屈）检查时，应将病号服后片拢在一起固定，使患者能专注于动作本身，而不必担心病号服滑落。</li>
		<li>完成该部分检查后，将病号服重新覆盖背部，并系好颈部系带。</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>腹部检查
	<ol>
		<li>将盖巾覆盖于患者的腿部和骨盆区域。</li>
		<li>患者取仰卧位时，将病号服（或由患者自行）上提至乳房下方稍低位置，同时固定盖巾，使其保持对骨盆区域的覆盖。此技术称为“双重遮盖法”，即同时利用病号服和盖巾，在检查腹部或下胸部时，使胸部、腿部、耻骨区和腹股沟区保持遮盖。</li>
		<li>采用此种暴露方式可完成腹部检查的所有标准项目，但自上方叩诊肝脏时需额外向一侧移开下胸部的病号服，此时患者可能需要将右侧乳房向上提起，以便进行叩诊。</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>股动脉与腹股沟淋巴结检查
	<ol>
		<li>股动脉的触诊和听诊通常要求患者穿着病号服。虽然可在薄层衣物上触诊脉搏，但效果不理想，且无法进行听诊。</li>
		<li>为同时完成触诊和听诊，应将盖巾向内侧移动，或充分下拉盖巾或裤子，使检查者能从上方接近检查区域，每次检查一侧，并在转向另一侧前恢复盖巾遮盖。</li>
		<li>注意：腹股沟淋巴结的检查也可采用相同方法进行。</li>
		<li>完成这些操作后，将病号服复位。</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>下肢肌肉骨骼系统检查
	<ol>
		<li>若患者穿着病号服且需在仰卧位检查下肢，应将盖巾置于患者双腿之间，以便能够逐侧轻松掀开并直接检查每条腿和髋关节，从而限制非正在检查区域的暴露。</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>皮肤检查
	<ol>
		<li>全面的皮肤检查需要有序地移动病号服以暴露所有目标区域，同时用病号服和盖巾遮盖其他部位。在此过程中，通常还需检查乳房、骨盆和臀部区域的皮肤。有关这些检查项目的遮盖技术，请参阅泌尿生殖系统检查和女性乳房检查的相关视频。</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
<img alt="敏感性检查指南；示意图；强调正确使用隔离衣；患者自主权；隐私保护。" src="/files/ftp_upload/10147/10147fig1.jpg" data-altupdatedat="1761830439000" data-alt="图1">
图1：手术铺巾和手术衣敏感使用的一般注意事项

在体格检查过程中，合理使用检查服和遮布对于平衡患者舒适度与暴露程度至关重要（图 1）。由于在大多数临床情况下，正确使用遮布能够确保检查的完整性，因此不应因担心暴露患者而影响检查质量。通过衣物、床单或检查服进行检查是错误的操作方式；尽管如此，在任一时刻仅需暴露正在检查的身体部位，且一旦某一部位检查完毕，临床医生应在继续下一区域前及时恢复遮盖。检查者不应将手伸入检查服或衣物下方进行检查，而应在整个检查过程中请患者协助移动检查服或遮布，这有助于患者在一定程度上掌控自身的暴露程度。在移动检查服或遮布前，提前告知患者即将进行的操作也非常重要，良好的沟通可显著减轻患者的紧张情绪。若临床医生在检查过程中系紧了检查服，应在请患者从检查台下来之前重新系好。本视频所展示的几种遮布技术可结合应用于体格检查的所有标准环节。与体格检查的其他各个方面一样，熟练掌握并形成个人风格的遮布技巧需要有意识的反复练习。

体格检查期间患者着装的适当调整

来源： <a href="https://www.jove.com/author/Jaideep+S._Talwalkar">Jaideep S. Talwalkar</a>，医学博士，Joseph Donroe，医学博士，内科与儿科学，耶鲁大学医学院，美国康涅狄格州纽黑文市
为了优化体格检查的预测价值，操作者必须正确实施各项检查操作。正确使用检查单是规范执行体格检查操作的重要组成部分。若未妥善使用检查单，可能导致皮肤病变被遗漏 &#34;检查&#34; 通过衣物听诊时，若隔着T恤检查肺部，可能出现错误的爆裂音报告，而心脏检查中的细微体征在隔着衣物听诊时则可能被遗漏。因此，最佳实践标准要求用手或仪器直接接触患者皮肤进行检查即，不要透过病号服、布单或衣物进行检查）。除了具有临床价值外，正确的遮盖技术对于提高患者在诊疗过程中的舒适度也非常重要。
与体格检查的其他所有方面一样，需要经过认真思考和练习，才能在遮盖（用于保护患者隐私）与暴露（为充分接触待检查部位所必需）之间找到合适的平衡点。不同医疗提供者在使用病号服和遮布方面的习惯存在很大差异，这取决于执业地点、资源可及性以及所属医学专业领域。本视频将对一些最常用的遮盖技术进行总体概述，结合使用了多种常见的遮盖方法。

来源：Jaideep S. Talwalkar，医学博士，Joseph Donroe，医学博士，内科与儿科学，耶鲁大学医学院，康涅狄格州纽黑文市  
为了优化……

正确使用各种着装，包括医院病号服和覆盖巾，是准确实施体格检查操作的重要组成部分。通过衣物进行检查时，可能会遗漏皮肤病变。若隔着T恤对肺部进行叩诊，所听到的声音可能产生误导。听诊时若隔着衣物，可能无法察觉心脏检查中的细微体征。因此，最佳实践标准要求检查时应使手或器械与患者的皮肤直接接触。故而，必须审慎思考并加以实践，以合理使用衣物遮盖，在保护患者隐私的同时，充分暴露需要检查的部位。某些部位可以在患者穿着日常衣物的情况下进行检查，而其他部位则在患者穿着检查袍并覆盖布单时更便于检查。在本视频中，我们将通过几个常规体格检查的示例，演示上述两种情况下的注意事项。首先，让我们回顾一下检查步骤，这些步骤可在患者穿着日常衣物的情况下进行。如果能够接触到患者的双臂，即可测量生命体征。对于基本的头、眼、耳、鼻、喉（HEENT）检查操作，应指导患者取下帽子、眼镜、义齿（若需彻底检查口腔黏膜时）以及助听器（若需进行详细耳部检查时）。但除此之外，从颈部以下的穿着情况不会影响这些检查的实施。如果患者穿着宽松的衣物，可方便地进行颈部和锁骨上区域的视诊和触诊。为检查腹部，应指导患者平躺，并要求其将裤子拉低、上衣掀起，以充分暴露检查区域。在进行血管检查时，根据需要卷起衣袖和裤腿，以便触及脉搏部位。在检查足背动脉搏动前，务必让患者脱去鞋袜。股动脉搏动通常在穿着日常衣物的患者中难以触及。只要患者的衣物允许对四肢进行视诊和触诊，即可顺利完成神经系统检查的全部内容。现在，我们来介绍患者穿着病号服时需要进行的各项操作。首先，向患者说明如何穿着病号服：“为了今天对您进行检查，我需要您换上这件病号服。请将病号服的后部敞开。您可以保留内衣，但请脱掉其他所有衣物，包括胸罩。” 告知患者您离开的时间，并在患者更衣时退出房间。返回时，请先敲门，并征得患者同意后再进入。指导患者坐在检查床上。提供一条盖巾以覆盖患者的腰部和腿部，保持温暖。此盖巾在后续各项操作中也将继续使用。现在，我们来介绍在进行颈部、前胸部和心脏检查时如何正确使用检查袍。首先，解开患者后颈部的检查袍系带。指导患者将检查袍肩部稍向下拉，以便充分暴露下颈部和锁骨区域。接着，请患者进一步将检查袍向下拉几英寸，以充分暴露前胸部、肺区以及心脏的肺动脉瓣区和主动脉瓣区。若进一步将检查袍在胸骨处下拉，可便于在Erb点和三尖瓣区进行听诊。完成该部分检查后，将检查袍重新覆盖回肩部。检查心尖时，指导患者抬起病号服，暴露左侧腰部及左上腹区域。检查二尖瓣区时，将听诊器置于左侧第五肋间锁骨中线处。某些体征在患者取左侧卧位时更易察觉。若患者左侧乳房影响该区域的听诊，可请患者用右手将其推开，或使用左手手背进行同样操作。此体位可使左心室更贴近胸壁，使用听诊器钟型胸件时，有助于增强S3、S4及二尖瓣狭窄杂音的听诊效果。为了充分暴露背部区域，让患者保持坐位，将病号服的褶皱向两侧移动。每次进一步移开一侧病号服，以便检查侧胸壁。在步态或站立位活动范围检查（如前屈测试）过程中，应将病号服后片拢在一起，使患者能够集中注意力于动作本身，而不必担心病号服滑落。此部分检查结束后，将病号服复位以遮盖背部，并重新系好颈部系带。对于腹部、大腿和腹股沟的检查，要求患者平躺，床面倾斜角度为0-30°，并放置盖单以遮盖患者的腿部和骨盆。请患者将病号服上提至胸部稍下方位置，同时固定盖单。此技术称为“双层遮盖法”，即同时使用病号服和盖单。采用这种暴露方式可完成所有标准的腹部检查项目，但自上方叩诊肝脏时除外，该操作需进一步将右侧病号服移开，以暴露下胸部。为评估股动脉和腹股沟淋巴结，可将盖单向内侧移动，每次检查一侧，检查完毕后再将盖单复位，再进行另一侧检查。完成上述操作后，将病号服复位。为了检查肌肉骨骼系统，应确保暴露目标区域，以便同时进行视诊、触诊和激发性操作。暴露范围还应包括邻近的肌群和关节。检查下肢时，将盖单置于患者双腿之间，以便于逐侧暴露并直接检查每条腿和髋部，同时限制非当前检查区域的暴露。最后，进行全面皮肤检查时，需依次移动病号服以暴露所有目标区域，同时用病号服或盖单遮盖其他部位。体格检查结束时，感谢患者的配合。在开始讨论复杂的诊断和治疗问题之前，请患者先穿好衣物。您刚刚观看了 JoVE 关于体格检查中衣物使用技巧的视频。本文介绍了一些在体格检查各个标准环节中有效处理患者衣物（无论是“日常服装”还是“病号服”）的实用方法。在确保患者舒适度与暴露必要部位以进行彻底检查之间取得平衡至关重要。与体格检查的其他所有方面一样，掌握恰当地调整患者衣物的技巧需要有意识的练习。一如既往，感谢观看！

Education

教育

JoVE Science Education

Clinical Skills

临床技能

Physical Examinations I

体格检查 I

病人的服装物理考试期间的适当调整

draping for a better physical exam

Draping is an important part of a careful physical exam. It helps the provider examine the right body area while also protecting patient modesty. Good draping takes practice because the examiner must balance exposure with comfort.

Correct technique also improves the accuracy of the exam. Skin lesions can be missed if inspection is done through clothing. Lung crackles may be reported by mistake when the chest is examined through a T-shirt, and subtle heart findings can be missed when auscultation, or listening with a stethoscope, is done over clothing.

Best practice is to place hands or equipment directly on the patient’s skin. That means the provider should not examine through a gown, drape, or other clothing. The exact style of gown and drape use can vary by practice site, available supplies, and medical discipline, so this overview shows common approaches used in clinical care.

Draping for a Better Physical Exam

general approach to the physical exam

Why Physical Exams Still Matter

Physical examination remains an important part of medicine. Doctors have used the body exam for centuries to connect changes in body function with disease. Even with modern imaging and lab tests, the bedside exam still helps clinicians understand what may be happening in the patient. Physical examination is not a replacement for tests, and it does not answer every question. Some maneuvers that were once highly valued may have limited usefulness. Still, many conditions can only be found through...

observation and inspection

Clinical Observation in Physical Exam

Clinical observation is the starting point of a physical examination and begins at the first contact with a patient. Observation is a broad term for using the senses carefully to gather information. Inspection is a narrower term. It refers to what can be seen with the eyes, especially on the surface of the body, rather than to behavior. Skilled clinicians use more than sight when they examine a patient. They also rely on touch, through palpation and percussion, and on hearing, through...

palpation

How Hand Position Guides Palpation

Palpation uses touch to collect diagnostic information during the physical exam. It is one of the ways a healthcare provider uses the senses to learn more about a patient. The part of the hand used for palpation changes depending on the body area being examined. Finger pads are best for fine detail. Their dense sensory nerves help the examiner feel small features, such as the borders of masses or lymph nodes. The back of the hand, also called the dorsal surface, gives a rough sense of relative...

percussion

Clinical Percussion and Body Sound

Clinical percussion uses tapping to create sound and help assess what lies beneath the body surface. It is a simple bedside technique that depends on the way sound changes when it travels through different tissues. The method began with Leopold Auenbrugger, an Austrian inn-keeper's son, who found that tapping beer barrels could help him take inventory. He later applied the same idea to patients in Vienna and published the first description of its diagnostic use in 1761. Jean-Nicolas Corvisart...

auscultation

Stethoscope Sounds in Clinical Exam

Auscultation is a clinical exam method that lets a provider listen to sounds inside the body. Doctors use it to gather important diagnostic information from the chest, heart, abdomen, and blood vessels. For many years, auscultation meant immediate auscultation. In that method, the examiner placed an ear directly on the patient's skin. This approach was used for centuries, but it became less useful in nineteenth-century France because of social norms and poor diagnostic yield. René Laënnec...

proper adjustment of patient attire during the physical exam

Draping is an important part of a careful physical exam. It helps the provider examine the right body area while also protecting patient modesty. Good draping takes practice because the examiner must balance exposure with comfort. Correct technique also improves the accuracy of the exam. Skin lesions can be missed if inspection is done through clothing. Lung crackles may be reported by mistake when the chest is examined through a T-shirt, and subtle heart findings can be missed when...

blood pressure measurement

Manual Blood Pressure Reading Steps

Blood pressure reading uses an indirect method to measure the pressure of blood against vessel walls. Blood pressure, or BP, is a vital sign that is checked routinely in hospital and outpatient settings. It is one of the most common medical assessments performed around the world. The indirect method is non-invasive, safe, and easily reproducible, so it is used most often. BP can be measured automatically by oscillometry or manually by auscultation. Auscultation uses a sphygmomanometer, which...

measuring vital signs

Vital Sign Ranges and Patient Status

Vital signs are objective measurements that show a patient’s clinical status. The commonly accepted vital signs are blood pressure, heart rate, temperature, respiratory rate, and oxygen saturation. In many practices, pain is also treated as the sixth vital sign and is documented with the others. Pain is different from the other vital signs because it is a subjective measurement. That means the pain scale can vary from one patient to another. A vital signs assessment includes heart rate, blood...

respiratory exam i: inspection and palpation

respiratory-exam-i-inspection-and-palpation

Checking Breathing Distress by Exam

Respiratory exam starts with looking for breathing distress and feeling the chest. Shortness of breath is a common reason for both outpatient and inpatient evaluation. Early inspection can reveal fast breathing or cyanosis, which is a bluish color change that can signal low oxygen. If a patient shows respiratory distress, the situation needs urgent attention and oxygen therapy. In many cases, careful clinical examination can help identify lung problems without relying only on tests. This is...

respiratory exam ii: percussion and auscultation

respiratory-exam-ii-percussion-and-auscultation

Respiratory Exam: Lung Sounds and Percussion

Respiratory exam skills include percussion and auscultation of the lungs. These techniques help identify lung problems during a physical exam. Percussion uses tapping to assess the chest, and auscultation uses a stethoscope to listen for breath sounds. Percussion is a useful skill that is often skipped in routine clinical practice. When it is done correctly, it can help a physician detect underlying lung pathology. Auscultation can also give an almost immediate clue to several acute pulmonary...

cardiac exam i: inspection and palpation

Cardiac Exam I: Checking the Chest First

Cardiac exam inspection and palpation are the first steps in a careful heart assessment. These steps help a physician gather useful information before using a stethoscope. They are part of the core examination performed when a patient is first seen. Heart and circulatory disorders are common reasons for hospital admission. They can include conditions such as myocardial infarction and congestive heart failure. Because of this, learning a complete cardiac examination is important for any...

cardiac exam ii: auscultation

Listening for Normal and Abnormal Heart Sounds

Heart auscultation uses a stethoscope to listen to heart sounds and check for normal and abnormal patterns. For physicians, knowing how to hear these sounds and tell them apart is an essential skill. The sound heard at each spot on the chest relates to the closing of specific heart valves. The heart has two main sounds, called S1 and S2. S1 happens when the mitral and tricuspid valves, which are the atrioventricular valves, close after blood enters the ventricles. This marks the start of...

cardiac exam iii: abnormal heart sounds

Heart Murmurs and Gallop Sounds

Heart murmurs and gallop sounds are abnormal heart sounds that can be heard during auscultation, or listening to the heart with a stethoscope. A good understanding of normal heart sounds is the first step in telling normal sounds apart from abnormal ones. Murmurs usually have a swishing quality and point to turbulent blood flow across a heart valve. Murmurs can happen because a valve is too narrow, which is called stenosis, or because blood leaks backward across the valve, which is called...

peripheral vascular exam

Assessing PAD and Venous Signs

Peripheral vascular disease can affect blood flow in the arms and legs, and careful exam steps help reveal signs of disease. Peripheral artery disease (PAD) is linked to cardiovascular and cerebrovascular complications. Risk factors include diabetes, hyperlipidemia, hypertension, and tobacco use. Symptoms may appear as limb claudication, which is cramp-like muscle pain that gets worse with activity and better with rest. Chronic venous insufficiency (CVI) can cause lower extremity swelling,...

peripheral vascular exam using a continuous wave doppler

peripheral-vascular-exam-using-a-continuous-wave-doppler

Bedside Doppler for Leg Blood Flow Checks

Peripheral vascular disease affects the arteries and veins outside the heart, and it is common in older adults. History and physical exam can suggest the diagnosis, but Doppler ultrasound is now a routine part of the bedside vascular exam. This lesson focuses on bedside assessment of peripheral arterial disease and chronic venous insufficiency with a handheld continuous wave Doppler. A handheld Doppler is a simple tool that sends and receives ultrasound at the same time. It detects changes in...

physical examinations i

本系列为进行体检提供了基础;从测量血压或生命体征, 到关键的肺和心血管物理检查的技术不等。

Learn how proper draping improves physical exam accuracy and patient comfort. See why direct skin contact matters for inspection, listening, and exam access.

Draping for a Better Physical Exam | JoVE K12

Jaideep Talwalkar

Joseph Donroe

Internal Medicine

Yale School of Medicine

Overview

Physical Exams that can be Performed in Street Clothing

Common Techniques for Effective Use of Drapes and Gowns

Summary

Characteristics of Life

Biology is a natural science that studies life and living organisms, including their structure, function, development, interactions, evolution, ...

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Cell Structure

Background
Cells represent the most basic biological units of all organisms, whether it be simple, single-celled organisms like bacteria, or large, ...

Visualizing Onion and Cheek Cells
ExpandImmediately before the experiment, wash and peel onion bulbs for the class.
Remove the entire brown outer skin and ...

Visualizing Onion and Human Cells
ExpandIn this experiment you will prepare different types of cells from a plant and animal, onion and human ...

What are Cells?

Cell Diversity

The concept of a cell started with microscopic observations of dead cork tissue by Robert Hooke in 1665. Hooke coined the term &#34;cell&#34; based on the ...

Cytoplasm

The cytoplasm consists of organelles and a framework of protein scaffolds called the cytoskeleton suspended in an aqueous solution, the cytosol. The ...

The Nucleus

The nucleus is a membrane-bound organelle that acts as a control center in a eukaryotic cell. It contains chromosomal DNA, which controls gene expression ...

The Central Dogma

The DNA Helix

Nucleic Acids

DNA as a Genetic Template

Structure of a Gene

A gene is the fundamental unit of heredity. Every individual has two copies of each gene, one inherited from each parent. Although most people contain the ...

Chromosome Structure

Base-pairing and DNA Repair

What is Gene Expression?

A gene is a stretch of DNA that serves as the blueprint for functional RNAs and proteins. Since DNA is comprised&#160; of nucleotides and proteins are ...

RNA Structure

The basic structure of RNA consists of a string of ribonucleotides attached by phosphodiester bonds. Although most RNA is single-stranded, it can form ...

Types of RNA

Three main types of RNA are involved in protein synthesis: messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). These RNAs perform diverse ...

Transcription

Transcription is the synthesis of RNA from a DNA sequence by RNA polymerase. It is the first step in producing a protein from a gene sequence. ...

Translation

Translation is the process of synthesizing proteins from the genetic information carried by messenger RNA (mRNA). Following transcription, it constitutes ...

Ribosomes

Ribosomes translate genetic information encoded by messenger RNA (mRNA) into proteins. Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have ribosomes. Cells that ...

Protein and Protein Structures

Proteins: From Genes to Degradation

From DNA to Protein

The flow of genetic information in cells from DNA to mRNA to protein is described by the central dogma, which states that genes specify the sequence of ...

Protein Folding

Proteins are chains of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. Upon synthesis, a protein folds into a three-dimensional conformation, critical to ...

An Overview of Gene Expression

Gene expression is the complex process where a cell uses its genetic information to make functional products. This process is regulated at multiple ...

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An Introduction to Caenorhabditis elegans

Caenorhabditis elegans is a microscopic, soil-dwelling roundworm that has been powerfully used as a model organism since the early 1970&rsquo;s.  It was ...

An Overview of Genetic Analysis

An organism&#8217;s physical traits, or phenotype, are a product of its genotype, which is the combination of alleles (gene variants) inherited from its ...

An Introduction to Cell Death

Necrosis, apoptosis, and autophagic cell death are all manners in which cells can die, and these mechanisms can be induced by different stimuli, such as ...

An Overview of Genetic Engineering

Genetic engineering &#8211; the process of purposefully altering an organism&#8217;s DNA &#8211; has been used to create powerful research tools and model ...

An Introduction to Cell Division

Cell division is the process by which a parent cell divides and gives rise to two or more daughter cells. It is a means of reproduction for single-cell ...

An Overview of Genetics and Disease

Many human diseases are associated with mutations or variations in genetic sequences. Some of these genetic variants are heritable, passed down from ...

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An Introduction to Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience

Cellular and molecular neuroscience is one of the newest and fastest growing subdisciplines in neuroscience. By investigating the influences of genes, ...

Annexin V and Propidium Iodide Labeling

Staining with annexin V and propidium iodide (PI) provides researchers with a way to identify different types of cell death&#8212;either necrosis or ...

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An Introduction to Developmental Genetics

Development is the complex process through which a single-celled embryo transforms into a multicellular organism. Developmental processes are guided by ...

Bacterial Transformation: Electroporation

The term &#x201C;transformation&#x201D; refers cellular ingestion of foreign DNA.  In nature, transformation can occur in certain types of bacteria.  In ...

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An Introduction to Molecular Developmental Biology

Molecular signals play a major role in the complex processes occurring during embryonic development. These signals regulate activities such as cell ...

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Bacterial Transformation: The Heat Shock Method

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An Introduction to Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Saccharomyces cerevisiae (commonly known as baker&rsquo;s yeast) is a single-celled eukaryote that is frequently used in scientific research.  S. ...

Cell Cycle Analysis

Cell cycle refers to the set of events through which a cell grows, replicates its genome, and ultimately divides into two daughter cells through the ...

An Introduction to Transfection

Transfection is the process of inserting genetic material, such as DNA and double stranded RNA, into mammalian cells. The insertion of DNA into a cell ...

Chromatin Immunoprecipitation

Histones are proteins that help organize DNA in eukaryotic nuclei by serving as &#8220;scaffolds&#8221; around which DNA can be wrapped, forming a complex ...

An Overview of Epigenetics

Since the early days of genetics research, scientists have noted certain heritable phenotypic differences that are not due to differences in the ...

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Community DNA Extraction from Bacterial Colonies

Source: Laboratories of Dr. Ian Pepper and Dr. Charles Gerba - The University of Arizona
Demonstrating Author: Luisa Ikner
Traditional methods of analysis ...

Cytogenetics

Cytogenetics is the field of study devoted to chromosomes, and involves the direct observation of a cell&#8217;s chromosomal number and structure, ...

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Embryonic Stem Cell Culture and Differentiation

Culturing embryonic stem (ES) cells requires conditions that maintain these cells in an undifferentiated state to preserve their capacity for self-renewal ...

DNA Gel Electrophoresis

DNA gel electrophoresis is a technique used for the detection and separation of DNA molecules. An electric field is applied to a gel matrix comprised of ...

Enzyme Assays and Kinetics

Enzyme kinetics describes the catalytic effects of enzymes, which are biomolecules that facilitate chemical reactions necessary for living organisms. ...

DNA Ligation Reactions

In molecular biology, ligation refers to the joining of two DNA fragments through the formation of a phosphodiester bond.  An enzyme known as a ligase ...

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Explant Culture for Developmental Studies

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DNA Methylation Analysis

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Expression Profiling with Microarrays

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Density Gradient Ultracentrifugation

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F&#246;rster Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET)

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Detecting Environmental Microorganisms with the Polymerase Chain Reaction and Gel Electrophoresis

Source: Laboratories of Dr. Ian Pepper and Dr. Charles Gerba - Arizona University
Demonstrating Author: Bradley Schmitz
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Gel Purification

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Gene Silencing with Morpholinos

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Construct an explanation based on evidence for how the structure of DNA determines the structure of proteins which carry out the essential functions of life through systems of specialized cells.

HS-LS1-1.

Draping for a Better Physical Exam

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