Name: basic life support: airway and breathing
Uploaded: 2023-04-30T06:47:39.000Z
Duration: 8 min 20 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

new-york-state-science-learning-standards

New York State Science Learning Standards

High School

Life Science

Structure and Function

HS-LS1-3.

basic-life-support-part-ii-airwaybreathing-continued-cardiopulmonary

Basic Life Support Part II:  Airway/Breathing and Continued Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation

请注意，通气操作需要第二名施救者。在第一名施救者持续进行高质量胸外按压的同时，第二名施救者负责完成为患者通气所需的所有步骤。绝不能让通气干扰胸外按压。如果人员不足无法同时进行两项操作，则应优先进行胸外按压。
1. 在进行胸外按压的同时，准备通气设备
<ol>
	<li>获取一个简易呼吸器（BVM）装置，该装置在大多数医院中均可方便获得。
	<ol>
		<li>口对口人工呼吸目前已不再推荐，仅在某些极端情况下例外，且不应在医院环境中实施。</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>将 BVM 装置连接至氧气源，调节氧流量为 10–15 L/min</li>
</ol>
2. 在进行胸外按压的同时，开放气道。
3. 正确摆放患者和施救者的位置对于有效开放气道至关重要。
<ol>
	<li>将患者置于仰卧平躺体位，移除枕头及其他可能妨碍体位摆放的物品。</li>
	<li>直接站在病床头部位置。从侧面或其他任何位置均无法正确实施球囊-面罩通气。</li>
	<li>若无创伤顾虑，应采用&#34;头后仰/抬颏&#34;手法开放气道。操作方法为：一只手手掌置于患者前额，另一只手手指置于颏下，用手指上抬颏部，使颈部伸展。</li>
	<li>对于部分患者，明显的枕骨隆凸可能影响颈部充分伸展。若存在此情况，可使用肩垫抬高肩部，从而实现颈部伸展。</li>
	<li>若存在创伤顾虑，应尽可能避免对颈椎进行操作。此时应采用&#34;下颌前推&#34;手法。操作方法为：将手指置于下颌角后方，向前推动下颌骨。请注意，此手法并非在所有情况下均有效，若无效则必须实施抬颏手法以开放气道。需牢记颈椎损伤仅为理论性顾虑，而气道梗阻则是迫在眉睫的生命威胁。</li>
</ol>
4. 胸外按压进行时，将面罩覆盖在患者的口鼻上。
<ol>
	<li>口罩的尖端部分应贴合鼻梁，圆端部分应贴合下巴。口罩不应垂至下巴尖端，也不应覆盖眼眶。</li>
</ol>
5. 在进行胸外按压的同时，应将面罩紧密地贴合在患者的面部。这是为了确保来自呼吸球囊的气体能够进入肺部，而不是泄漏到周围环境中。实现这一操作的最佳方法是采用&#34;C/E&#34;手法。
<ol>
	<li>用你的优势手，做一个 &#34;C&#34; 用拇指和食指捏住面罩的茎部。</li>
	<li>制作一个 &#34;E&#34; 与你的 3rd-5th 沿患者下颌骨用手指触诊，注意将5th 下颌角后方的手指</li>
	<li>使用你的3rd-5th 用手指将患者的面部向上拉入面罩中。切勿将面罩向下按压在面部，因为这通常会使通气更加困难。</li>
</ol>
6. 暂停胸外按压以开始通气。
<ol>
	<li>在保持面罩与患者面部密合的同时，用另一只手挤压气囊以使肺部充气。</li>
	<li>给予两次缓慢呼吸，每次挤压气囊持续1秒，然后释放1秒。</li>
	<li>每次通气时观察胸廓是否抬起。这是判断通气是否有效的唯一依据！由于患者无脉搏，无法通过脉搏血氧饱和度监测进行评估。</li>
	<li>避免过度通气——仅需注入足以产生可见胸廓抬起的气量即可。过度通气会增加胸腔内压，减少心脏的血液回流。</li>
</ol>
7. 若未观察到胸廓隆起，应重新开始胸外按压，并在下一次通气暂停时准备排查并纠正手控呼吸器（BVM）操作技术问题。
<ol>
	<li>首先，检查您的位置是否正确。您是否正站在病床头部？患者是否仰卧，且头部下方无枕头或其他阻碍物？</li>
	<li>如果患者和施救者的体位均正确，请重新调整双手位置，再次尝试使用仰头提颏法和/或下颌前推法开放气道，然后再次尝试通气。</li>
	<li>如果仍未成功，改用双人操作技术。
	<ol>
		<li>使用双手的C-E手法将面罩紧密贴合于面部。双手操作可更有效地密封面罩，并在提颏的同时增加下颌前推动作。</li>
		<li>让助手挤压呼吸球囊以使肺部充气。</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>如果仍未成功，插入经口咽通气道（OPA）。
	<ol>
		<li>通过选择从患者口角至耳垂长度的型号，来确定合适的OPA尺寸。</li>
		<li>将弯曲端经口腔插入，越过舌根部位。此举可将舌头向前牵拉，使其脱离下咽部。</li>
		<li>您可以将OPA直接插入咽部，也可先倒置插入，在其通过舌根时旋转到位。</li>
		<li>注意避免将舌头进一步推入下咽部。必要时可用戴着手套的手或压舌板手动移开舌头。</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
8. 胸外按压与通气的协调。
9. 给予两次人工呼吸后，立即恢复胸外按压。
10. 进行30次胸外按压。大声数数，以记录已实施的按压次数。
11. 30 次胸外按压后，再给予两次人工呼吸。
12. 继续进行心肺复苏，按压与通气比例为30:2。以30:2的比例重复5个循环，或持续两分钟（以时钟或自动体外除颤器计时），此时应暂停以重新评估患者状况。
13. 暂停心肺复苏以检查心律。
<ol>
	<li>如第一个视频中所述，必须暂停胸外按压，以便准确评估心律，因为胸外按压会产生电干扰，从而掩盖基础心律。</li>
	<li>判断心律是否可电击，即是否为心室颤动或室性心动过速。这些心律在第一个视频中已有讨论。</li>
	<li>如果心律可电击，则按照第一个视频中的说明给予电击，并在电击后立即恢复胸外按压。</li>
	<li>如果心律不可电击，则无需电击，直接恢复胸外按压。</li>
	<li>若无可用除颤器（在偏远地区可能出现此情况），可在计划的暂停期间进行颈动脉脉搏检查。您也可在评估心律的同时检查颈动脉脉搏。</li>
</ol>
14. 根据临床指征持续进行心肺复苏。
<ol>
	<li>每进行两次人工呼吸后，进行 30 次胸外按压。</li>
	<li>每完成 5 个循环或每两分钟暂停一次，进行心律/脉搏检查。</li>
	<li>只有在临床上不再需要时，才可停止心肺复苏（CPR）。终止心肺复苏的指征包括：
	<ol>
		<li>患者恢复意识</li>
		<li>患者仍无意识，但恢复脉搏</li>
		<li>进一步复苏无效，且您决定宣布患者死亡</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
15. 仅在救援人员到达后，并且这些操作不会影响心肺复苏的质量和连续性时，才考虑采取高级生命支持措施（如插管或血管通路建立）。

高质量的心肺复苏（CPR）对心脏骤停患者的存活至关重要，所有医疗保健提供者都必须熟练掌握。尽管胸外按压和除颤比呼吸支持更为重要，但对于复苏时间较长的患者，通气仍具有显著益处，只要具备足够的人力和设备，就应实施通气。面罩-球囊（BVM）通气是一项比初看之下更为复杂的技能，救援人员必须完善其技术才能有效实施。所有医疗提供者都必须掌握如何排查无效通气问题，因为标准操作技术常常无法实现胸廓起伏。持续进行包含呼吸支持的综合心肺复苏，对于确保患者在自主循环恢复前维持充分灌注和氧合至关重要。

基础生命支持第二部分：气道/呼吸及持续心肺复苏

来源： <a href="https://www.jove.com/author/Julianna_Jung">Julianna Jung</a>，医学博士，美国急诊医学学会会士，美国马里兰州约翰斯·霍普金斯大学医学院急诊医学系副教授
高质量的心肺复苏（CPR）和除颤是心脏骤停患者最重要的干预措施，应作为施救者首先采取的步骤。这一点体现在美国心脏协会（American Heart Association）提出的新的“CAB”记忆口诀中。过去施救者学习的是心脏骤停的“ABC”原则，而现在则采用“CAB”原则——即先进行循环（Circulation），再进行气道（Airway）和呼吸（Breathing）。只有在心肺复苏已经开始（并且在有除颤器的情况下已完成除颤）之后，才考虑提供呼吸支持。本视频将介绍在心脏骤停患者中正确实施呼吸支持的技术，以及如何在专业救援到达前持续进行基础生命支持。
本视频假设“基础生命支持第一部分：心肺复苏与除颤”中描述的所有步骤均已完成。本视频未展示到达心脏骤停现场后所采取的初始步骤。

来源：Julianna Jung，医学博士，美国内科急救医师学会会员，美国马里兰州约翰斯·霍普金斯大学医学院急诊医学副教授  
高质量...

持续进行心肺复苏并结合呼吸支持，对于确保患者在自主循环恢复之前维持灌注和氧合至关重要。心肺复苏和除颤是针对心脏骤停患者最重要的干预措施，已在之前的基础生命支持视频中讨论过。呼吸支持包括建立气道和实施人工呼吸，仅在胸外按压开始且完成除颤后进行。本视频介绍了如何使用球囊-面罩-呼吸器（BVM）建立气道，以及如何协调通气与心肺复苏（CPR）。最后，我们还将讨论一些故障排除步骤，包括使用口咽通气道（OPA）。请注意，通气需要第二名施救者。在第一名施救者持续进行高质量胸外按压的同时，第二名施救者负责完成为患者通气所需的所有步骤。绝不能让通气操作干扰胸外按压。如果人员不足无法同时进行两项操作，则应优先进行胸外按压。在进行胸外按压的同时，第一步是将球囊-面罩通气装置（BVM）连接至氧气，并将氧流量调节至每分钟10–15升。接下来，将患者置于仰卧位并放平身体，移除枕头及其他可能妨碍体位摆放的物品。此时应站在病床正头部位置，因为从侧方或其他任何位置均无法正确实施球囊-面罩通气。为开放气道，将一只手的手掌置于患者前额，另一只手的指尖置于下颌下方。然后用手指向上抬起下颌，从而伸展颈部。此操作称为“仰头-抬颏法”，仅在无颈椎损伤顾虑时使用。若存在颈椎损伤风险，则应尝试将手指置于下颌角后方，并向前推动下颌以开放气道。此操作称为“推颌法”，可避免颈部伸展。 如果下颌前推法无法有效打开气道，则应采用抬高下颌法，因为颈椎损伤仅为理论上的顾虑，而气道阻塞则会立即危及生命。打开气道后，将面罩覆盖在患者的口鼻上，尖端部分置于鼻梁上方，圆端部分置于下颌处。面罩不应悬垂于下颌尖端，也不应覆盖眼眶。接下来，使用 C/E 手法固定面罩。具体操作为：用优势手的拇指和食指在面罩体部周围形成“C”形，同一只手的第三至第五指则沿患者的下颌形成“E”形，将小指置于下颌角后方。然后，利用第三至第五指将患者的面部向上托起，紧贴面罩。切勿将面罩向下压在面部，因为这会使通气更加困难。当面罩与患者面部紧密贴合后，球囊中的气体将进入肺部，而不会泄漏到周围环境中。此时，当面罩已与患者面部密合后，应暂停胸外按压，开始进行通气。在保持面罩密合的同时，用另一只手挤压呼吸球囊以使肺部充气。给予两次缓慢通气，每次挤压球囊持续1秒，然后释放1秒。观察患者胸部是否随每次通气而抬起。由于患者无脉搏时无法使用脉搏血氧监测，因此胸部抬起是判断通气有效的唯一指标。仅需注入足以产生可见胸部抬起的气体量，因为过度通气会增加胸内压，进而阻碍血液回流至心脏，降低心输出量。在给予最初的两次人工呼吸后，立即恢复胸外按压。大声计数，进行30次胸外按压，然后暂停进行2次人工呼吸。以30次按压和2次呼吸的比例持续进行5个循环，或持续2分钟——以时钟计时。此时暂停心肺复苏，进行心律检查；如果心律可电击，按照之前基础生命支持视频中所述进行除颤。如果心律不可电击，则继续实施心肺复苏。如果患者的胸部在通气过程中没有抬起，则应重新开始胸外按压，并执行一些故障排除步骤。所有操作人员都必须掌握如何排除通气无效的故障，因为标准技术常常无法产生必要的胸部抬起。首先，检查体位是否正确。您是否正位于病床头部位置？患者是否仰卧且未使用枕头或其他可能阻碍操作的物品？如果患者与施救者的体位均正确，请重新调整双手位置，再次尝试使用仰头提颏法和/或推颌法开放气道，然后再次进行通气。如果仍然无法通气，则改用双人操作技术，即由施救者用双手实施C/E手法，将面罩紧密贴合于面部，并同时采用仰头提颏和推颌手法开放气道，而助手则挤压呼吸囊以使肺部膨胀。如果双人操作技术不成功，可插入经口咽通气道（OPA）。第一步是选择合适尺寸的 OPA，其长度应从口角延伸至耳垂。将弯曲端插入口腔，越过舌根，从而将舌头向前拉出下咽部。另一种方法是将其倒置插入，同时在通过舌根时旋转通气道。注意避免将舌头进一步推入下咽部。尽管胸外按压和除颤比呼吸支持更为重要，但对于需要长时间复苏的患者，通气仍有益处，且在有人力和设备条件的情况下应予以实施。施救者应持续按照每30次按压给予2次呼吸的比例进行操作，并每隔5个循环或2分钟暂停一次，以进行心律检查。只有在临床上不再需要时，才应停止心肺复苏。终止心肺复苏的指征包括：患者恢复意识、患者仍处于无意识状态但脉搏恢复，或进一步复苏无效且您准备宣布患者死亡。只有在救援人员到达且能够确保这些操作不会影响心肺复苏的质量和连续性时，才应考虑进行插管或血管通路等高级生命支持措施。您刚刚观看了一段 JoVE 视频，该视频介绍了如何对正在进行心肺复苏（CPR）的患者实施通气，如何协调胸外按压与通气，以及当通气未能产生足够的胸廓起伏时应如何排查问题。一如既往，感谢您的观看！

Education

教育

JoVE Science Education

Clinical Skills

临床技能

Emergency Medicine and Critical Care

急诊医学与重症监护

第二部分基本生命支持: 气道/呼吸和继续心肺复苏

basic life support: airway and breathing

Basic life support for cardiac arrest includes airway and breathing support after CPR is already underway. The American Heart Association now uses the CAB sequence, which means circulation comes first, followed by airway and breathing. In this approach, rescuers start with high-quality chest compressions and defibrillation, if a defibrillator is available, before moving to respiratory support.

Airway care and breathing support are considered only after the first CPR steps have been completed. Airway means the passage that lets air reach the lungs. Breathing support helps move air into a patient who is in cardiac arrest while other basic life support measures continue.

This lesson shows the correct way to provide respiratory support during a cardiac arrest response. It also explains how to keep giving basic life support until help arrives. The scene begins after the initial steps from Basic Life Support Part I, so it does not show the first actions taken when a rescuer reaches the patient.

Basic Life Support: Airway and Breathing

basic life support:  cardiopulmonary resuscitation and defibrillation

basic-life-support-cardiopulmonary-resuscitation-and-defibrillation

High-Quality CPR for Cardiac Arrest

High-quality CPR is a critical response for cardiac arrest. It helps support blood flow and can improve the chance of intact survival. This page focuses on the key steps that make CPR effective and the reasons each step matters. The video explains the essential parts of high-quality cardiopulmonary resuscitation, or CPR. It also describes the physiologic basis for each step. In other words, it connects the actions taken during resuscitation with the body’s need for oxygen and circulation. The...

basic life support part ii:  airway/breathing and continued cardiopulmonary resuscitation

Basic life support for cardiac arrest includes airway and breathing support after CPR is already underway. The American Heart Association now uses the CAB sequence, which means circulation comes first, followed by airway and breathing. In this approach, rescuers start with high-quality chest compressions and defibrillation, if a defibrillator is available, before moving to respiratory support. Airway care and breathing support are considered only after the first CPR steps have been completed.

pericardiocentesis

Cardiac Tamponade Relief by Fluid Aspiration

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lateral canthotomy and inferior cantholysis

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Emergency Airway Access with Cricothyrotomy

Emergency cricothyrotomy provides airway access when endotracheal intubation has failed and ventilation is getting worse or is not possible. This is the feared "can’t intubate, can’t ventilate" situation. In that setting, cricothyrotomy is the surgical airway procedure of choice. Cricothyrotomy is often chosen over tracheotomy because it has a lower risk of complications. It also uses the cricothyroid membrane, whose anatomy is more predictable. The procedure can be performed more quickly,...

open cricothyrotomy

Emergency Airway Access by Cricothyrotomy

Emergency airway access by cricothyrotomy is a surgical way to create a breathing route when standard intubation fails. It uses an incision through the cricothyroid membrane to place a tube into the airway. This option is used in the feared "can't intubate, can't ventilate" situation, when endotracheal intubation has not worked and breathing is getting worse or has stopped. The airway is usually secured with a tracheostomy tube. This tube has three parts: an outer cannula, an inner cannula,...

needle thoracostomy

Emergency Relief for Tension Pneumothorax

Tension pneumothorax is a life-threatening emergency that can build pressure around the lung. It can happen after chest trauma or from a spontaneous air leak from the lung. As air collects in the pleural space, the lung separates from the chest wall and normal breathing is disrupted. When the trapped air keeps expanding, the lung can shrink and collapse. The pressure can also push the mediastinum, which includes the heart and great vessels, away from the center of the chest. This makes it...

tube thoracostomy

Chest Tube Drainage for Lung Compression

Chest tube drainage is a procedure that places a hollow tube into the thoracic cavity to remove air or fluid. It is also called chest tube placement or tube thoracostomy. The goal is to relieve pressure on the lungs so they can re-expand. Emergency chest tube insertion is used as a definitive treatment for tension pneumothorax, traumatic hemothorax, large pleural effusions, and empyemas. In pneumothorax, air collects in the pleural cavity and separates the pleural layers, which prevents the...

intra-articular shoulder injection for reduction following shoulder dislocation

intra-articular-shoulder-injection-for-reduction-following-shoulder

Ultrasound-Guided Lidocaine for Shoulder Reduction

Anterior shoulder dislocation is a common joint injury seen in emergency settings. It happens when the humeral head slips out of the glenohumeral joint in front of the scapular glenoid. The shoulder can lose its normal connection with the arm after this injury. This dislocation can happen after a fall onto an arm that is abducted, extended, and externally rotated. Bicycle and running accidents are common examples. It may also follow minor trauma. In some cases, it can even occur when a person...

arterial line placement

Monitoring Blood Pressure with an Arterial Line

Arterial line placement is used for direct blood pressure monitoring when more exact and reliable readings are needed. A catheter is inserted into a major artery, such as the radial artery or femoral artery, so it can transduce blood pressure and provide intra-arterial measurements. Most patients can have blood pressure checked accurately with non-invasive methods. However, some situations require closer monitoring because the reading must be more specific and dependable. This is especially...

intraosseous needle placement

Fast Bone Access for Emergency Care

Intraosseous needle placement gives emergency teams fast access to the blood stream when a peripheral intravenous cannula, or PIV, is hard to place. It is used for unstable patients who need urgent medications, fluids, or blood products. The needle enters the highly vascularized intramedullary space inside a long bone, where substances can be absorbed quickly. PIV placement often fails for practical reasons. It can be difficult in small children, injection drug users, obese people, and...

peripheral venous cannulation

IV Catheter Placement in Superficial Veins

IV catheter placement is a key medical procedure for giving treatment through a vein. An intravenous, or IV, catheter helps patients receive pain medicine, insulin, antibiotics, blood products, and fluids for rehydration. It also allows blood samples to be collected and sent to the laboratory for testing and evaluation. Most peripheral IV lines are placed in superficial veins in the upper extremities. A peripheral IV line is a catheter placed in a vein near the skin surface. It can be inserted...

central venous catheter insertion: internal jugular

central-venous-catheter-insertion-internal-jugular

Ultrasound-Guided IJ Catheter Placement

Ultrasound-guided internal jugular catheter placement is a common way to place central venous access. This approach is used when a patient needs reliable vascular access, vasopressor or caustic medication delivery, central venous pressure monitoring, intravascular devices such as pacing wires or Swann-Ganz catheters, volume resuscitation, total parenteral nutrition, hemodialysis, or frequent phlebotomy. Safe placement depends on knowing the neck anatomy and understanding how the internal...

central venous catheter insertion: femoral vein

central-venous-catheter-insertion-femoral-vein

Femoral Venous Access for Emergencies

Femoral venous access is a fast option for central venous catheter placement in emergencies. It is often used when urgent central access is needed during medical codes and trauma resuscitations. The femoral vein can be reached with ultrasound guidance or with surface landmarks, which makes it practical when time matters. Central venous access is used in many clinical situations. It can support vascular access, vasopressor and caustic medication delivery, central venous pressure monitoring,...

central venous catheter insertion: subclavian vein

central-venous-catheter-insertion-subclavian-vein

Subclavian Central Line Placement Steps

Subclavian central venous catheter placement is used to gain central venous access through the subclavian vein. Central venous access is needed in many clinical situations for hemodynamic monitoring, medication delivery, and blood sampling. The subclavian route is one of three main sites used for central venous cannulation, along with the internal jugular and femoral veins. The subclavian approach has several advantages. It is associated with lower infection and thrombosis rates than internal...

emergency medicine and critical care

该文集深入探讨了在紧急情况和重症监护环境中使用的各种程序, 从基本的生命支持方法 (如 CPR 和抢救呼吸) 到在紧急状况下执行的其他常规程序不等。

Learn how airway and breathing support fit into the CAB sequence of basic life support after CPR and defibrillation have begun during cardiac arrest.

Basic Life Support: Airway and Breathing | JoVE K12

Julianna Jung

The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine

Overview

Essential Steps

Troubleshooting Steps

Summary

Characteristics of Life

Biology is a natural science that studies life and living organisms, including their structure, function, development, interactions, evolution, ...

https://cloudfront.jove.com/files/media/science-education/science-education-thumbs/10647.jpg

Cell Structure

Background
Cells represent the most basic biological units of all organisms, whether it be simple, single-celled organisms like bacteria, or large, ...

Visualizing Onion and Cheek Cells
ExpandImmediately before the experiment, wash and peel onion bulbs for the class.
Remove the entire brown outer skin and ...

Visualizing Onion and Human Cells
ExpandIn this experiment you will prepare different types of cells from a plant and animal, onion and human ...

What are Cells?

Cell Diversity

The concept of a cell started with microscopic observations of dead cork tissue by Robert Hooke in 1665. Hooke coined the term &#34;cell&#34; based on the ...

Cytoplasm

The cytoplasm consists of organelles and a framework of protein scaffolds called the cytoskeleton suspended in an aqueous solution, the cytosol. The ...

The Nucleus

The nucleus is a membrane-bound organelle that acts as a control center in a eukaryotic cell. It contains chromosomal DNA, which controls gene expression ...

The Central Dogma

The DNA Helix

Nucleic Acids

DNA as a Genetic Template

Structure of a Gene

A gene is the fundamental unit of heredity. Every individual has two copies of each gene, one inherited from each parent. Although most people contain the ...

Chromosome Structure

Base-pairing and DNA Repair

What is Gene Expression?

A gene is a stretch of DNA that serves as the blueprint for functional RNAs and proteins. Since DNA is comprised&#160; of nucleotides and proteins are ...

RNA Structure

The basic structure of RNA consists of a string of ribonucleotides attached by phosphodiester bonds. Although most RNA is single-stranded, it can form ...

Types of RNA

Three main types of RNA are involved in protein synthesis: messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). These RNAs perform diverse ...

Transcription

Transcription is the synthesis of RNA from a DNA sequence by RNA polymerase. It is the first step in producing a protein from a gene sequence. ...

Translation

Translation is the process of synthesizing proteins from the genetic information carried by messenger RNA (mRNA). Following transcription, it constitutes ...

Ribosomes

Ribosomes translate genetic information encoded by messenger RNA (mRNA) into proteins. Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have ribosomes. Cells that ...

Protein and Protein Structures

Proteins: From Genes to Degradation

From DNA to Protein

The flow of genetic information in cells from DNA to mRNA to protein is described by the central dogma, which states that genes specify the sequence of ...

Protein Folding

Proteins are chains of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. Upon synthesis, a protein folds into a three-dimensional conformation, critical to ...

An Overview of Gene Expression

Gene expression is the complex process where a cell uses its genetic information to make functional products. This process is regulated at multiple ...

an-introduction-to-caenorhabditis-elegans

An Introduction to Caenorhabditis elegans

Caenorhabditis elegans is a microscopic, soil-dwelling roundworm that has been powerfully used as a model organism since the early 1970&rsquo;s.  It was ...

An Overview of Genetic Analysis

An organism&#8217;s physical traits, or phenotype, are a product of its genotype, which is the combination of alleles (gene variants) inherited from its ...

An Introduction to Cell Death

Necrosis, apoptosis, and autophagic cell death are all manners in which cells can die, and these mechanisms can be induced by different stimuli, such as ...

An Overview of Genetic Engineering

Genetic engineering &#8211; the process of purposefully altering an organism&#8217;s DNA &#8211; has been used to create powerful research tools and model ...

An Introduction to Cell Division

Cell division is the process by which a parent cell divides and gives rise to two or more daughter cells. It is a means of reproduction for single-cell ...

An Overview of Genetics and Disease

Many human diseases are associated with mutations or variations in genetic sequences. Some of these genetic variants are heritable, passed down from ...

an-introduction-to-cellular-and-molecular-neuroscience

An Introduction to Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience

Cellular and molecular neuroscience is one of the newest and fastest growing subdisciplines in neuroscience. By investigating the influences of genes, ...

Annexin V and Propidium Iodide Labeling

Staining with annexin V and propidium iodide (PI) provides researchers with a way to identify different types of cell death&#8212;either necrosis or ...

an-introduction-to-developmental-genetics

An Introduction to Developmental Genetics

Development is the complex process through which a single-celled embryo transforms into a multicellular organism. Developmental processes are guided by ...

Bacterial Transformation: Electroporation

The term &#x201C;transformation&#x201D; refers cellular ingestion of foreign DNA.  In nature, transformation can occur in certain types of bacteria.  In ...

an-introduction-to-molecular-developmental-biology

An Introduction to Molecular Developmental Biology

Molecular signals play a major role in the complex processes occurring during embryonic development. These signals regulate activities such as cell ...

bacterial-transformation-the-heat-shock-method

Bacterial Transformation: The Heat Shock Method

Transformation is the process that occurs when a cell ingests foreign DNA from its surroundings. Transformation can occur in nature in certain types of ...

an-introduction-to-saccharomyces-cerevisiae

An Introduction to Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Saccharomyces cerevisiae (commonly known as baker&rsquo;s yeast) is a single-celled eukaryote that is frequently used in scientific research.  S. ...

Cell Cycle Analysis

Cell cycle refers to the set of events through which a cell grows, replicates its genome, and ultimately divides into two daughter cells through the ...

An Introduction to Transfection

Transfection is the process of inserting genetic material, such as DNA and double stranded RNA, into mammalian cells. The insertion of DNA into a cell ...

Chromatin Immunoprecipitation

Histones are proteins that help organize DNA in eukaryotic nuclei by serving as &#8220;scaffolds&#8221; around which DNA can be wrapped, forming a complex ...

An Overview of Epigenetics

Since the early days of genetics research, scientists have noted certain heritable phenotypic differences that are not due to differences in the ...

community-dna-extraction-from-bacterial-colonies

Community DNA Extraction from Bacterial Colonies

Source: Laboratories of Dr. Ian Pepper and Dr. Charles Gerba - The University of Arizona
Demonstrating Author: Luisa Ikner
Traditional methods of analysis ...

Cytogenetics

Cytogenetics is the field of study devoted to chromosomes, and involves the direct observation of a cell&#8217;s chromosomal number and structure, ...

embryonic-stem-cell-culture-and-differentiation

Embryonic Stem Cell Culture and Differentiation

Culturing embryonic stem (ES) cells requires conditions that maintain these cells in an undifferentiated state to preserve their capacity for self-renewal ...

DNA Gel Electrophoresis

DNA gel electrophoresis is a technique used for the detection and separation of DNA molecules. An electric field is applied to a gel matrix comprised of ...

Enzyme Assays and Kinetics

Enzyme kinetics describes the catalytic effects of enzymes, which are biomolecules that facilitate chemical reactions necessary for living organisms. ...

DNA Ligation Reactions

In molecular biology, ligation refers to the joining of two DNA fragments through the formation of a phosphodiester bond.  An enzyme known as a ligase ...

explant-culture-for-developmental-studies

Explant Culture for Developmental Studies

Explant culture is a technique in which living cells or tissues are removed from an embryo for continued development outside of the organism. This ex vivo ...

DNA Methylation Analysis

Methylation at CpG dinucleotides is a chemical modification of DNA hypothesized to play important roles in regulating gene expression. In particular, the ...

Expression Profiling with Microarrays

Microarrays are important tools for profiling gene expression, and are based on complementary binding between probes that are attached to glass chips and ...

Density Gradient Ultracentrifugation

Density gradient ultracentrifugation is a common technique used to isolate and purify biomolecules and cell structures. This technique exploits the fact ...

F&#246;rster Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET)

F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET) is a phenomenon used to investigate close-range biochemical interactions. In FRET, a donor photoluminescent ...

detecting-environmental-microorganisms-with-polymerase-chain-reaction

Detecting Environmental Microorganisms with the Polymerase Chain Reaction and Gel Electrophoresis

Source: Laboratories of Dr. Ian Pepper and Dr. Charles Gerba - Arizona University
Demonstrating Author: Bradley Schmitz
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is ...

Gel Purification

Gel purification is used to recover DNA fragments after electrophoretic separation. DNA recovery from an agarose gel includes three basic steps: binding, ...

Detecting Reactive Oxygen Species

Reactive oxygen species are chemically active, oxygen-derived molecules capable of oxidizing other molecules. Because of their reactive nature, there are ...

Gene Silencing with Morpholinos

Morpholino-mediated gene silencing is a common technique used to study roles of specific genes during development. Morpholinos inhibit gene expression by ...

Construct an explanation based on evidence for how the structure of DNA determines the structure of proteins which carry out the essential functions of life through systems of specialized cells.

HS-LS1-1.

Basic Life Support: Airway and Breathing

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