Name: cognitive dissonance and self-image
Uploaded: 2020-02-12T11:07:44.000Z
Duration: 1 min 38 s
Channel: JoVE

人们希望自身对生活的个人期望（例如希望学习新的学科）与现实（例如去上课）之间保持一致。在这种平衡中，期望与现实相互协调，学生便会感到自己作为一名正常运转的学生而感到舒适。然而，个人的信念与行为有时可能并不一致。例如，他的学习小组计划在当地的一家酒吧举行一次严肃的课程排练。尽管他秉持着认真学习的承诺，而过度饮酒会干扰这一信念，但他却点了许多品脱的啤酒，这与他作为学者的期望相矛盾。

后一种情况是认知失调的一个实例——一种因同时持有相互矛盾的信念而引起的心理困扰状态。这种心理冲突会产生不适感，因此个体可能会以多种方式作出反应，以减轻这种失调状态。

第一种，他可以改变自己的行为：下次，他只会喝一品脱。

第二种，他可以改变自己的信念：他可能会说服自己，为考试而学习其实并没有那么重要。

第三，他可以为自己的行为辩解：他确实需要休息一下。

第四，他可以忽略或否认相关信息：他可能会认为喝啤酒实际上并不会影响他的注意力。

最终，个体会做出反应，调整自身的行为、信念和态度，从而恢复到自我感觉良好的状态。

认知失调

Cognitive Dissonance

社会心理学家已证实，对自我感觉良好并保持积极的自尊心是人类行为的强大驱动力（Tavris & Aronson, 2008）。在美国，主流文化中的成员通常高度评价自己，并认为自己在许多理想特质方面优于平均水平，是善良的人（Ehrlinger, Gilovich, & Ross, 2005）。当我们的自尊或积极的自我形象受到威胁时，我们的行为、态度和信念常常会受到影响。心理学家利昂·费斯廷格（Leon Festinger, 1957）将&nbsp;认知失调&nbsp;定义为因持有两种或多种不一致的态度、行为或认知（思想、信念或观点）而产生的心理不适。费斯廷格的认知失调理论指出，当我们的行为、态度或信念与我们积极的自我认知相冲突时，我们会体验到心理上的不适（即失调）。例如，如果你认为吸烟有害健康，但仍然继续吸烟，那么你的信念与行为之间就会产生冲突。

后续研究表明，只有当认知冲突威胁到个体积极的自我形象时，才会引发认知失调（Greenwald & Ronis, 1978）。进一步研究发现，认知失调不仅会带来心理上的不适，还可能引起生理唤醒（Croyle & Cooper, 1983），并激活大脑中与情绪和认知功能相关的重要区域（van Veen, Krug, Schooler, & Carter, 2009）。当我们经历认知失调时，会受到动机驱使去减少这种失调，因为它在心理、生理和精神层面均会带来不适。我们可以通过使自己的认知、态度和行为保持一致——即让它们变得协调和谐——来降低&nbsp;cognitive dissonance&nbsp;。实现这一目标的方式有多种，例如：

<ul>
	<li>改变我们不一致的行为（例如，戒烟），</li>
	<li>通过合理化或否认来改变我们的认知（例如，告诉自己吸过滤嘴香烟可以降低健康风险），</li>
	<li>增加一种新的认知（例如，“吸烟抑制了我的食欲，使我不会超重，这对我的健康有益。”）。</li>
</ul>

请提供更多示例。

认知失调的一个经典例子是约翰，一位20岁的年轻人，他参军入伍。在新兵训练营期间，他每天早上5点被叫醒，长期睡眠不足，遭受呵斥，身上布满沙蚤叮咬的痕迹，身体上青一块紫一块，精神上也疲惫不堪。情况更糟的是，进入新兵训练营第11周的学员必须完成连续54小时的训练。

毫不奇怪，约翰感到痛苦。没有人喜欢处于痛苦之中。在这种情况下，人们可以改变自己的信念、态度或行为。最后一种选择，即改变行为，对约翰来说并不可行。他已经与军队签订了为期四年的服役合同，依法不得退出。

如果约翰一直想着自己有多么痛苦，那么接下来的四年将会非常漫长。他将一直处于认知失调的状态。为了避免这种痛苦，约翰可以改变自己的信念或态度。他可以告诉自己：“我正在变得更强壮、更健康、更敏锐。我正在学习自律，以及如何保护自己和自己的国家。我所做的事 действительно 非常重要。” 如果他持有这样的信念，就会意识到自己正通过挑战不断成长。随后，他的感受会好转，不再经历认知失调这种令人不适的心理状态。

起始的影响

军队中的例子表明，由于努力合理化效应，艰难的&nbsp;入组过程&nbsp;会影响我们更加&nbsp;喜爱该群体。我们不希望为加入一个最终会离开的群体而白白浪费时间和精力。Aronson 和 Mills（1959年）的一项经典实验验证了这种努力合理化效应。大学生志愿者报名参加一个将在校园内定期聚会、讨论性心理学的小组。参与者被随机分配到三种不同条件之一：无入组程序、简单入组程序或困难入组程序。在参与了第一场讨论（该讨论被刻意设计得非常枯燥）之后，参与者评价了他们对这个小组的喜爱程度。结果发现，经历了困难入组过程的参与者比经历简单入组或无入组过程的参与者对小组的评价更为积极。

在一项关于学生努力程度如何影响课程评价的近期研究中，也可以观察到类似的效果。Heckert、Latier、Ringwald-Burton 和 Drazen（2006 年）对一所美国中西部大学选修课程的 463 名本科生进行了调查，了解其课程所需付出的努力程度。此外，学生还被要求对课程的各个方面进行评价。根据你刚刚阅读的内容，那些需要付出最多努力的课程被评价为比不需要太多努力的课程更有价值，这一点并不令人意外。此外，学生表示，他们在需要付出更多努力的课程中学到了更多知识，而不论他们在这些课程中获得的成绩如何（Heckert et al., 2006）。

除了经典的军事案例和团体入会仪式外，你还能想到其他例子吗？&nbsp;认知失调？这里有一个例子：Marco 和 Maria 居住在美国康涅狄格州费尔菲尔德县，这是美国最富裕的地区之一，生活成本极高。Marco 在家远程工作，Maria 则不在家外就业。他们租住着一套非常小的房子，每月租金超过 3000 美元。Maria 从寄售商店购买衣物，并尽可能节省开支。他们抱怨自己从来没钱，无法购买任何新东西。当被问及为何不搬到生活成本更低的地方居住时（毕竟 Marco 可以远程工作），他们回答说费尔菲尔德县风景优美，他们喜爱那里的海滩，而且在那里感到舒适。认知失调理论如何解释 Marco 和 Maria 的选择？

&nbsp;

这&nbsp;改编自 <a href="https://cnx.org/contents/Sr8Ev5Og@10.16:MBKbyrYC@13/12-3-Attitudes-and-Persuasion" target="_blank">OpenStax，心理学。OpenStax CNX。</a>

社会心理学家已证实，对自我感觉良好并保持积极的自尊感是人类行为的强大驱动力……

Education

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JoVE Core

Social Psychology

社会心理学

Foundations of Social Psychology

社会心理学基础

Attitudes and Persuasion

态度与说服

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

关键术语与概念

cognitive dissonance and self-image

Cognitive dissonance is psychological discomfort that happens when a person holds two or more inconsistent thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors. Social psychologists note that this conflict is especially likely to matter when it threatens a person's positive self-image. People often want to feel good about themselves, and a threat to self-esteem can shape what they do and what they believe.

Psychologist Leon Festinger defined cognitive dissonance in 1957. His theory says that when behavior, attitudes, and beliefs clash with a person's self-view, the result is uncomfortable. A common example is knowing that smoking is bad for health but continuing to smoke. Later research found that not every conflict causes dissonance. The conflict is most likely to matter when it challenges a person's positive view of self.

Cognitive dissonance is not only a mental feeling. Research has shown that it can also cause physical arousal and activate brain regions tied to emotion and thinking. Because the state is psychologically, physically, and mentally uncomfortable, people are motivated to reduce it. They can do that by changing the behavior, changing the belief through rationalization or denial, or adding a new belief that makes the situation feel more reasonable.

A military boot camp example shows how dissonance can work in real life. John, a 20-year-old recruit, is sleep deprived, exhausted, and miserable during training. He cannot simply leave, so changing his behavior is not an option. Instead, he can reduce the discomfort by changing his attitude and telling himself that he is becoming stronger, healthier, sharper, and more disciplined, and that he is helping defend his country.

The same idea helps explain the justification of effort effect. A difficult initiation into a group can make people like the group more because they do not want to feel that their effort was wasted. In a classic study, college students joined a campus group that would discuss the psychology of sex. Some had no initiation, some had an easy one, and some had a difficult one. After a deliberately boring first discussion, the students who faced the difficult initiation rated the group more favorably.

Later research found a similar pattern in college courses. Students who said their courses required more effort often rated those courses as more valuable. They also reported learning more, even when their grades were the same. The concept also fits everyday choices. Marco and Maria pay high rent in Fairfield County, Connecticut, and say they have little money, yet they stay because they love the area and feel comfortable there. Their explanation helps reduce the tension between their costs and their choice to remain.

Cognitive Dissonance and Self-Image

attitudes

Attitude Components in Everyday Life

Attitude is our evaluation of a person, an idea, or an object. People hold attitudes about many things. These can include products from the supermarket, people around the world, and political policies. Attitudes are usually favorable or unfavorable, meaning positive or negative. Attitudes also have three parts. The affective component is the feeling part. The behavioral component is the effect the attitude has on behavior. The cognitive component includes belief and knowledge. For example, a...

cognitive dissonance

Cognitive dissonance is psychological discomfort that happens when a person holds two or more inconsistent thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors. Social psychologists note that this conflict is especially likely to matter when it threatens a person's positive self-image. People often want to feel good about themselves, and a threat to self-esteem can shape what they do and what they believe. Psychologist Leon Festinger defined cognitive dissonance in 1957. His theory says that when...

routes of persuasion

Central and Peripheral Persuasion Paths

Persuasion changes attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors through communication. People often meet persuasion from outside sources in everyday life. The topic has been studied closely in social psychology, especially through Carl Hovland’s work during World War II and later at Yale University. His work led to the Yale attitude change approach, which explains when people are likely to change their attitudes. The Yale attitude change approach shows that persuasion depends on the source, the message,...

persuasion strategies

How Small Requests Influence Bigger Yeses

Persuasion strategies can shape what people buy and how they think or act. Researchers have tested these methods in many settings, including sales and behavior change. Two well-known examples are the foot-in-the-door technique and the door-in-the-face technique. The foot-in-the-door technique starts with a small request. If someone agrees to that first request, they are more likely to agree to a larger request later. This works through consistency, which is the tendency to stay in line with...

social proof

Social Proof in Everyday Choices

Social proof is a persuasion tactic that shapes everyday choices through comparison and conformity. People often look at what others are doing and adjust their own actions to match the group. This response can happen quickly, especially when a behavior seems popular or widely accepted. A clear example comes from television laugh tracks. Fullery and Skeffington (1974) found that adding group laughter to material made people rate it as funnier, even when the content was not actually funny. In...

key terms and concepts

Explore how cognitive dissonance affects self-image, why it feels uncomfortable, and how effort, belief changes, and real-life choices reduce it.

Cognitive Dissonance and Self-Image | JoVE K12

JoVE Core Social Psychology offers a comprehensive learning experience on the principles of social behavior through concise, animated video lessons. The series explores key topics such as self-concept, social cognition, group dynamics, stereotypes, and relationships. It provides a structured foundation for understanding human behavior in social situations. Students gain insights into how individuals think, feel, and behave in social contexts while examining the psychological processes that influence interactions and judgments. By integrating theory with real-world applications, these lessons offer a clear and engaging approach to mastering essential concepts in social psychology.

social psychology

JoVE Core 社会心理学将我们社会生活的基础带入到现实生活当中。我们会通过 66 节简单明了且通俗易懂的动画视频课程，向您解释该领域的主要概念。此外，在另外 25 个科学家行动视频中，我们演示了在实验室中进行的经典和原始研究实验。

Cognitive Dissonance and Self-Image

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