Name: how bias shapes social group behavior
Uploaded: 2020-02-12T11:07:45.000Z
Duration: 2 min 55 s
Channel: JoVE

在社交环境中，人们可能会根据他人最显著的特征（如年龄、性别或种族）与之互动。因此，个体能够迅速将他人作为一个整体进行评估——即基于群体分类的构念。

然而，这一过程可能导致不利的偏见。其中一种是刻板印象，即对某个群体过度概括的心理信念。例如，人们普遍认为老年人比年轻人更虚弱且能力较差。

对某个群体持有刻板印象可能导致偏见——即基于个体所属群体而对其产生的不合理态度。当一个人内化了关于老年人的负面刻板印象后，甚至可能在尚未了解新搬来的老年邻居之前，就立即对其产生反感。

在许多情况下，个体可能并未意识到自身的偏见。相反，他们会自动产生负面联想，这一点可通过内隐联想测试加以验证。该计算机任务通过测量个体将某一群体成员与正面或负面图像及词语进行关联的速度，来评估其内在倾向。

例如，在一组试验过程中，参与者可能会看到年轻或年老面孔的图像。要求他们将手指放在“E”和“I”键上，尽可能快速而准确地将图像归类到左侧或右侧类别中。

在另一组试验中，组合方式被调换：此时，坏/年轻和好/年老的组合在图像呈现时被配对出现。

如果参与者在“良好/年轻”条件下的分类速度比“良好/年长”试验更快，则可能表明其对老年人存在无意识的偏见，因为较慢的反应被认为反映了更困难的联想过程。

由于人们往往会对不熟悉的群体产生此类偏见，因此通过与不同群体的人建立关系，可以减少他们的负面态度。

否则，偏见（包括有意识和无意识的）可能会加剧 辨别—对某个群体及其成员的负面行为。

例如，即使两名求职者具备同等的任职资格，雇主也可能仅基于年龄因素而选择聘用较年轻的申请人而非年长的申请人。这种情况属于年龄歧视。

尽管某些形式的偏见和歧视在文化上被接受并持续存在，但大多数人可以选择根据他人的品格内涵来识别他们，而不是以外在表象对他们进行标签化。

格林沃尔德，A. G.，麦吉，D. E.和施瓦茨，J. L.（1998）。测量内隐认知的个体差异:内隐联想测试。 人格与社会心理学杂志， 74,1464。

刻板印象、偏见与歧视

Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination

人类具有极大的多样性，尽管我们有许多共同点，但也存在诸多差异。我们所归属的社会群体有助于形成我们的身份认同（Tajfel，1974）。这些差异可能对某些人而言难以调和，从而导致对与自己不同的人产生偏见。偏见是指仅基于个体所属某一特定社会群体的身份而对其产生的负面态度和情感（Allport，1954；Brown，2010）。偏见常出现在针对不熟悉文化群体成员的情况中。因此，某些类型的教育、接触、互动以及与不同文化群体成员建立关系，均有助于降低产生偏见的倾向。事实上，仅仅想象与不同文化群体成员进行互动，也可能影响偏见。确实，当实验参与者被要求想象自己与来自不同群体的人进行积极互动时，这会导致他们对该群体的态度更加积极，并增加与该群体相关的正面特质评价。此外，想象中的社会互动还可以减轻与群体间互动相关的焦虑感（Crisp & Turner，2009）。你所归属的、有助于塑造你身份认同的社会群体有哪些？社会群体可包括性别、种族、民族、国籍、社会阶层、宗教、性取向、职业等。并且，与社会角色类似，你可以同时属于多个社会群体。一个偏见的例子是对非美国出生的人持有负面态度。尽管持有这种偏见的人并不认识所有非美国出生的人，但他们仍因其“外国人”的身份而对其产生反感。

你能否想到自己曾经对某个群体抱有偏见？你的这种偏见是如何形成的？偏见通常以刻板印象的形式开始，即仅基于个体所属群体而对其形成的特定信念或假设，无视其个人特征。刻板印象会被过度泛化，并应用于该群体的所有成员。例如，对老年人持有偏见的人，可能认为老年人行动迟缓且能力低下（Cuddy, Norton, &amp; Fiske, 2005; Nelson, 2004）。我们不可能认识每一位年长者，从而确认所有老年人都行动迟缓且能力低下。因此，这种负面信念被过度泛化至该群体的所有成员，尽管许多个体成员实际上可能依然敏捷且聪慧。

另一个广为人知的刻板印象涉及关于运动员种族差异的观念。正如 Hodge、Burden、Robinson 和 Bennett（2008）所指出的，人们通常认为黑人男运动员比白人男运动员更具运动天赋，但智力却较低。尽管存在大量与此相反的显著事例，这类观念依然持续存在。遗憾的是，这些观念常常影响他人对这些运动员的对待方式，也影响运动员自身如何看待自己及其能力。无论你是否认同某种刻板印象，刻板印象在特定文化中通常是广为人知的（Devine，1989）。

有时，人们会基于对某一群体的偏见态度而采取行动，这种行为被称为歧视。歧视是指由于个体属于某一特定群体而对其采取的负面行为（Allport，1954；Dovidio & Gaertner，2004）。由于对某一特定群体持有负面信念（刻板印象）和负面态度（偏见），人们常常对偏见对象表现出不良对待，例如将老年人排除在自己的朋友圈之外。心理学家遭遇性别歧视的一个实例可见于玛丽·惠顿·卡尔金斯（Mary Whiton Calkins）的生活与学术经历。卡尔金斯曾获得特别许可，参加哈佛大学的研究生研讨班（在19世纪80年代末，哈佛大学尚不接受女性学生），并在某一阶段成为著名心理学家威廉·詹姆斯（William James）唯一的研究生。她完成了获得博士学位所需的全部要求，心理学家雨果·明斯特伯格（Hugo Münsterberg）曾评价她为“本国有史以来最杰出的心理学教授之一”。然而，哈佛大学却因她是女性而拒绝授予其博士学位（哈佛大学，2019）。&nbsp;你是否曾成为歧视的对象？如果是，这种负面待遇让你有何感受？

关于刻板印象、偏见和歧视的讨论，通常涉及负面且有问题的思想、情感和行为。&nbsp;然而，人们也可能基于群体归属而对个体持有积极的思想、情感和行为；例如，他们会对自己相似的人——即与自己具有相同性别、种族或喜爱相同运动队的人——表现出优待。

偏见与歧视的类型

当我们遇到陌生人时，会自动处理关于他们的三类信息：种族、性别和年龄（Ito & Urland, 2003）。为什么一个陌生人的这些特征如此重要？为什么我们不去关注他们的眼神是否友善、是否在微笑、身高如何，或穿着何种衣服？尽管这些次要特征在形成对陌生人的第一印象时也很重要，但种族、性别和年龄这些社会类别却能提供大量关于个体的信息。然而，这些信息往往基于刻板印象。我们可能会根据陌生人的种族、性别和年龄，对他们产生不同的预期。你对与自己种族、性别或年龄群体不同的人持有怎样的刻板印象和偏见？通过点击<a href="https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/" target="_blank">此处</a>进行内隐联想测试，了解你自身的内隐关联！

种族主义 

种族主义是仅基于个体所属特定种族群体（如非裔美国人、亚裔美国人、拉丁裔、美洲原住民、欧裔美国人）而对其产生的偏见和歧视。不同种族或民族群体存在哪些刻板印象？研究表明，针对亚裔美国人的文化刻板印象包括冷漠、狡猾和聪明；针对拉丁裔的刻板印象为冷漠和愚笨；针对欧裔美国人的刻板印象为冷漠和聪明；针对非裔美国人的刻板印象则包括具有攻击性、擅长体育运动以及更可能违反法律（Devine &amp; Elliot, 1995；Fiske, Cuddy, Glick, &amp; Xu, 2002；Sommers &amp; Ellsworth, 2000；Dixon &amp; Linz, 2000）。

种族主义存在于许多种族和民族群体中。例如，非裔在美国交通拦截过程中被搜查车辆的可能性明显高于白人，尤其是当非裔在以白人为主的社区驾车时（这一现象常被称为“DWB”，即“黑人驾驶”[driving while Black]；Rojek, Rosenfeld, &amp; Decker, 2012）。

墨西哥裔美国人及其他拉丁裔群体也常常遭受来自警察和社区其他成员的种族歧视。例如，在使用个人支票购物时，与白人顾客相比，拉丁裔顾客更有可能被要求出示正式的身份证明（Dovidio 等，2010）。

在康涅狄格州东哈芬市一起涉嫌警察骚扰事件中，数名当地警察因被指控持续骚扰和暴力对待拉丁裔居民而遭到联邦起诉。当这些指控曝光后，东哈芬市长被问及：“您今天为拉丁裔社区做了什么？”市长回应称：“我回家时可能会吃个塔可，不过现在还不确定。”（“东哈芬市长”，2012）。这一言论淡化了针对拉丁裔的种族歧视性执法和警察骚扰这一严肃问题，同时通过强调对一种被刻板印象化地与拉丁裔关联的食物的兴趣，贬低了拉丁裔文化。

在美国，针对许多其他群体的种族主义现象普遍存在，包括原住民、阿拉伯裔美国人、犹太裔美国人以及亚裔美国人。您是否目睹过针对这些种族或族群的种族主义行为？您是否意识到您所在社区中存在的种族主义问题？

现代种族主义及其他偏见难以察觉的原因之一与双重态度模型有关（Wilson, Lindsey, & Schooler, 2000）。人类存在两种态度形式：显性态度，即有意识且可控制的态度；以及隐性态度，即无意识且不可控制的态度（Devine, 1989；Olson & Fazio, 2003）。由于秉持平等主义观点在社会上具有期望性（Plant & Devine, 1998），大多数人在显性态度测量中不会表现出明显的种族偏见或其他偏见。然而，在隐性态度的测量中，却常常显示出从轻微到强烈的种族偏见或其他偏见的证据（Greenwald, McGee, & Schwartz, 1998；Olson & Fazio, 2003）。

性别歧视

性别歧视是基于个体性别的偏见和歧视行为。通常表现为男性对女性持有偏见，但任何性别都可能对自身性别或异性表现出性别歧视。与种族歧视类似，性别歧视可能较为隐晦且难以察觉。现代社会中常见的性别歧视形式包括性别角色期待，例如认为女性应承担家庭照护责任。性别歧视还包括人们对某一性别群体成员行为方式的预期。例如，人们通常期待女性表现出友善、顺从和富有关怀的特质；当女性表现出不友好、强势或疏于照顾他人时，往往因违背了性别角色而受到反感（Rudman，1998）。Laurie Rudman（1998）的研究发现，当女性求职者进行自我推介时，她们可能被认为能力较强，但同时也更易招致反感，被录用的可能性也更低，因为她们违背了社会对女性应谦逊的性别期待。性别歧视可能存在于社会层面，如招聘、就业机会和教育领域。女性在男性主导的职业中，例如工程、航空和建筑行业，获得聘用或晋升的机会更少&nbsp;（Blau, Ferber & Winkler, 2010；Ceci & Williams, 2011）。你是否曾经历或目睹过性别歧视？请思考你家庭成员的职业情况。你认为为什么男女从事的职业存在差异，例如女性护士较多而男性外科医生较多（Betz，2008）？

年龄歧视

人们常常根据年龄对他人形成判断并抱有特定期望。这些判断和期望可能导致年龄歧视，即仅基于年龄对个体产生的偏见和歧视。通常情况下，年龄歧视针对的是老年人，但年轻人也可能成为年龄歧视的对象。试想一下你对老年人所持有的期望。一个人的这些期望会如何影响其对年长群体成员的态度和感受？年龄歧视在美国文化中普遍存在（Nosek, 2005），其中一种常见的针对老年人的年龄歧视态度是认为他们无能、身体虚弱且行动迟缓（Greenberg, Schimel, &amp; Martens, 2002）以及一些人认为老年人缺乏吸引力。然而，某些文化中，&nbsp;包括美国国内和国外的一些亚洲、拉丁裔和非裔美国人文化，都给予老年人尊重和敬重。

年龄歧视也可能针对年轻成年人。您对年轻人抱有哪些期望？社会是否认为年轻成年人不成熟且不负责任？这两种形式的年龄歧视可能如何影响一位申请销售员职位的年轻成年人和年长成年人？

恐同

另一种偏见形式是恐同症：即仅基于个体性取向而对其产生的偏见与歧视。与年龄歧视类似，恐同症是美国社会中普遍存在且被许多人默许的一种偏见（Herek & McLemore, 2013；Nosek, 2005）。负面情绪常常导致歧视行为，例如将女同性恋、男同性恋、双性恋和跨性别者（LGBT）排除在社交群体之外，或刻意回避LGBT邻居和同事。这种歧视还表现为雇主故意拒绝聘用合格的LGBT求职者。您是否曾经历或目睹过恐同现象？如果有的话，其中表现出哪些刻板印象、偏见态度和歧视行为？

偏见与歧视为何存在？

由于社会学习和对社会规范的遵从，偏见与歧视在社会中持续存在。儿童从社会中习得带有偏见的态度和信念：他们的父母、教师、朋友、媒体以及其他社会化来源（如 Facebook）都会产生影响（O’Keeffe & Clarke-Pearson, 2011）。如果某种类型的偏见和歧视在某一社会中被接受，个体可能面临来自群体规范的压力，从而认同并表现出类似的偏见性信念、态度和行为。例如，公立学校与私立学校在社会阶层上仍存在一定程度的隔离。历史上，只有来自富裕家庭的儿童能够负担私立学校的费用，而中低收入家庭的儿童通常就读于公立学校。如果一名来自低收入家庭的儿童凭借优异的学业成绩获得奖学金进入私立学校，他或她可能会受到同学怎样的对待？你能否回忆起自己曾经因为朋友群体的期望而持有偏见态度或信念，或做出歧视性行为的经历？

&nbsp;

本文改编自 <a href="https://cnx.org/contents/Sr8Ev5Og@10.24:nhpI4cUs@13/12-5-Prejudice-and-Discrimination" target="_blank">OpenStax, 心理学。OpenStax CNX。</a>

人类具有极大的多样性，尽管我们有许多共同点，但也存在诸多差异。我们所属的社会群体有助于形成我们的身份认同……

Education

教育

JoVE Core

Social Psychology

社会心理学

Foundations of Social Psychology

社会心理学基础

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

关键术语与概念

固有印象、偏见和歧视

how bias shapes social group behavior

Prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination are ways bias can shape how people think and act toward social groups. Social groups help form identity, and people can belong to many groups at once, including gender, race, ethnicity, nationality, social class, religion, sexual orientation, and profession. Differences can be hard for some people to accept, but education, contact, and relationships with other cultural groups can reduce prejudice. Even imagining a positive interaction with someone from another group can improve attitudes and lower anxiety.

Prejudice is a negative attitude or feeling toward a person because of group membership. A stereotype is a belief or assumption about a group that gets applied to everyone in that group, even when individual people are very different. For example, some people wrongly assume that older adults are slow and incompetent, or that Black male athletes are more athletic but less intelligent than White male athletes. These ideas are overgeneralized, yet they can still affect how people are treated and how they see themselves.

Discrimination is the behavior that follows prejudice. It means taking negative action toward someone because of group membership, such as excluding older adults from social circles. The transcript also gives the example of Mary Whiton Calkins, who completed the requirements for a PhD at Harvard but was denied the degree because she was a woman. People can also show positive bias, such as favoring people who are like themselves.

When meeting strangers, people often notice race, gender, and age first. These categories can shape first impressions because they are tied to stereotypes and expectations. A useful tool for exploring these hidden links is the Implicit Association Test, which measures implicit associations rather than only what people say they believe.

Racism is prejudice and discrimination based on race. The transcript describes stereotypes about several groups, including ideas about Asian Americans, Latinos, European Americans, and African Americans. It also gives real-world examples such as Black drivers being searched more often during traffic stops, Latino shoppers being asked for ID more often, and police harassment of Latinos in East Haven, Connecticut. These examples show how racism can appear in everyday settings and in law enforcement.

Modern racism is often hard to spot because people have both explicit attitudes and implicit attitudes. Explicit attitudes are conscious and controllable, while implicit attitudes are unconscious and less controllable. Many people report fair views, but tests of implicit attitudes can still show racial bias or other prejudice. This dual attitudes model helps explain why bias can persist even when people do not openly endorse it.

Sexism is prejudice and discrimination based on sex. It often appears as gender role expectations, such as expecting women to be caretakers, friendly, passive, and nurturing. Women who act assertively or self-promote may be seen as competent but also disliked, and they may be less likely to be hired. The transcript also notes that women are less likely to be hired or promoted in male-dominated fields such as engineering, aviation, and construction.

Ageism is prejudice and discrimination based on age. It usually targets older adults, who are often seen as incompetent, physically weak, slow, or less attractive, but it can also affect younger adults who may be viewed as immature or irresponsible. These expectations can shape treatment in settings like job interviews. Some cultures, including some Asian, Latino, and African American cultures, show respect and honor for older adults.

Homophobia is prejudice and discrimination based on sexual orientation. The transcript describes it as widespread in U.S. society and notes that it can lead to exclusion of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people from social groups, neighbors, and workplaces. People may also be denied jobs even when they are qualified. Prejudice and discrimination often continue because children learn them through socialization from parents, teachers, friends, media, and social norms. When a society accepts bias, people may feel pressure to conform, even in places such as schools that differ by social class.

How Bias Shapes Social Group Behavior

in- and out-groups

In-Group Bias and Scapegoating

In-group bias and scapegoating help explain how people react to groups they belong to and groups they see as different. An in-group is a group a person identifies with or feels part of. An out-group is a group a person does not belong to and sees as fundamentally different. People often use group membership as part of their identity and self-esteem. Gender, race, age, and social economic group can all serve as in-groups. For example, if a person is female, females are the in-group and males...

stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination

Prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination are ways bias can shape how people think and act toward social groups. Social groups help form identity, and people can belong to many groups at once, including gender, race, ethnicity, nationality, social class, religion, sexual orientation, and profession. Differences can be hard for some people to accept, but education, contact, and relationships with other cultural groups can reduce prejudice. Even imagining a positive interaction with someone from...

stereotype content model

Warmth and Competence in Stereotypes

The Stereotype Content Model explains how people judge social groups using two main ideas: warmth and competence. Warmth means a group’s perceived intent, or whether it seems likely to help or cause harm. Competence means the group’s ability to carry out that intent. Susan Fiske and colleagues first proposed this model, and it helps show why first impressions can shape behavior toward other people. The model places stereotypes into four main categories. A group can be low in warmth and low in...

robbers cave

Robbers Cave and Group Conflict

The Robbers Cave study shows how group conflict can grow when teams are forced to compete. In the 1950s, two boys’ groups at an Oklahoma summer camp, called the Rattlers and the Eagles, entered a week-long tournament. As the competition continued, their hostility grew into name-calling, fistfights, vandalism, and damage to property. The study also showed one way to reduce that tension. Researchers used superordinate goals, which are shared goals that groups can only reach by working together.

stereotype threat and self-fulfilling prophecies

stereotype-threat-and-self-fulfilling-prophecies

How Stereotypes Shape Behavior

Stereotypes can shape behavior through self-fulfilling prophecy and confirmation bias. A self-fulfilling prophecy happens when an expectation changes how someone acts, and that behavior helps make the expectation come true. When people hold stereotypes about others, they may treat them in ways that match those expectations. That treatment can then push the other person to act in the same way, which seems to confirm the stereotype. A classic study by Rosenthal and Jacobson in 1968 showed this...

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Explore how stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination affect social groups, from racism and sexism to ageism, homophobia, and implicit bias.

How Bias Shapes Social Group Behavior | JoVE K12

JoVE Core Social Psychology offers a comprehensive learning experience on the principles of social behavior through concise, animated video lessons. The series explores key topics such as self-concept, social cognition, group dynamics, stereotypes, and relationships. It provides a structured foundation for understanding human behavior in social situations. Students gain insights into how individuals think, feel, and behave in social contexts while examining the psychological processes that influence interactions and judgments. By integrating theory with real-world applications, these lessons offer a clear and engaging approach to mastering essential concepts in social psychology.

social psychology

JoVE Core 社会心理学将我们社会生活的基础带入到现实生活当中。我们会通过 66 节简单明了且通俗易懂的动画视频课程，向您解释该领域的主要概念。此外，在另外 25 个科学家行动视频中，我们演示了在实验室中进行的经典和原始研究实验。

How Bias Shapes Social Group Behavior

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