Name: warmth and competence in stereotypes
Uploaded: 2020-02-12T11:07:45.000Z
Duration: 2 min 16 s
Channel: JoVE

对其他群体——即外群体——的刻板印象并不一定是负面的。当人们试图与另一个群体建立联系时，可能会产生复杂的情感，从而形成矛盾的偏见。

根据刻板印象内容模型，个体可能基于对两个因素的认知对社会群体形成刻板印象：一是热情度，即该群体是否被视为友好；二是能力，即该群体被认为具备多强的能力。

例如，在工作日中，一名律师会接触到各种不同的人群。他会将他的秘书刻板地视为温暖型——她友好且乐于助人，但认为她能力不足，因为她“水平一般”且没有法律学位。这导致他对她产生同情——类似于一种家长式怜悯。

相比之下，他将公司最顶尖的女性律师归类为能力极强——她受过良好教育、自信果断且事业成功——但认为她缺乏亲和力，因为她与他竞争案件。这引发了嫉妒情绪。

然而，当他的老板的妻子——一位慈善家——来拜访他时，他认为她既热情又能力强。他注意到她的慷慨，以及她不会对他的工作加以干涉，因而不具威胁性。因此，他表达了对她的钦佩之情。

最后，在回家的路上，这位律师遇到一名无家可归的女性，他认为她能力极低——无法为社会做出任何有意义的贡献。他也不认为她具有亲和力；她正在乞讨零钱，必定没有良好的动机。这导致了轻蔑情绪的产生。

因此，一个人对不同人群的刻板印象可分为四种“性格特征”类型——能力低且热情低；能力高且热情高；或在两个维度上高低混合，即在一个维度上高而在另一个维度上低，从而导致矛盾态度。

此外，每个类别都会引发特定类型的偏见情绪，这种情绪最终可用于预测特定群体所面临的歧视类型。

Fiske， S.T.， Cuddy， A. J. C.， Glick， P. & Xu， J. （2002）.一个（通常是混合的）刻板印象内容的模型:能力和热情分别来自感知的地位和竞争。人格与社会心理学杂志，82（6），878-902。doi: 10.1037//0022-3514.82.6.878

菲斯克，ST（2012 年）。温暖与能力:临床医生和研究人员的刻板印象内容问题。 加拿大心理学， 53（1），14-20。doi:10.1037/a0026054

菲斯克，ST（2017 年）。文化背景下的偏见:共同的刻板印象（性别、年龄）与可变的刻板印象（种族、民族、宗教）。 心理科学观点， 12（5），791-799。doi:10.1177/1745691617708204

Cuddy， A. J. C.， Fiske， S. T. & Glick， P. （2004年）。当专业人士成为母亲时，温暖并不能打破僵局。社会问题杂志，60（4），701-718。

Cuddy， A. J. C.， Fiske， ST & Glick， P. （2007）.偏见映射:来自群体间情感和刻板印象的行为。人格与社会心理学杂志，92（4），631-648。doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.4.631

哈里斯，L. T. & 菲斯克，S. T. （2007）。引起厌恶的社会群体在 mPFc 中被区别处理。扫描，2,45-51。doi:10.1093/scan/nsl037

Kervyn， N.， Fiske， S. T.， & Malone， C. （2012）.品牌作为意向代理框架:感知意图和能力如何映射品牌感知。 消费者心理学杂志， 22（2），10.1016/j.jcps.2011.09.006。doi:10.1016/j.jcps.2011.09.006

Oliveira， R.， Arriaga， P.， Correia， F. & Paiva， A. （2019）。应用于群体中人机交互的刻板印象内容模型。2019 第 14 届 ACM/IEEE 人机交互 （HRI） 国际会议，韩国大邱（韩国），第 123-132 页。doi:10.1109/HRI.2019.8673171

Oliveira， R.， Arriaga， P.， Correia， F.， & Paiva， A. （2018年3月3日）。使机器人的态度可预测:用于群体中人机交互的刻板印象内容模型。https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/kfzdg

刻板印象内容模型

Stereotype Content Model

刻板印象内容模型（Stereotype Content Model, SCM） 最初由苏珊·菲斯克（Susan Fiske）及其同事提出（Fiske, Cuddy, Glick & Xu, 2002；另见 Fiske, 2012 和 Fiske, 2017）。该模型指出，当个体接触到一个新群体时，会基于两个维度对该群体形成刻板印象：一是热情度（warmth），即该群体被感知的意图，以及其提供帮助或造成伤害的可能性；二是能力度（competence），即该群体实现其意图的能力。根据在热情度与能力度上的分类，个体对该群体会产生特定的情感反应，进而影响其对待该群体成员的行为。

歧视与刻板印象内容模型

根据社会认知模型（SCM），群体刻板印象可分为四类：（1）热情和能力均低；（2）热情和能力均高；（3）热情低但能力高；以及（4）热情高但能力低。相应地，这些分类分别引发轻蔑、钦佩、嫉妒和怜悯等情绪——这些情绪可能导致某些群体受到歧视。在美国，女性和无家可归者便是此类现象的两个实例。

在考察职场中的性别问题时，研究表明，职业母亲往往被视为温暖但无能（Cuddy & Fiske, 2004）。一方面，这种归类所引发的同情可能使同事更愿意提供帮助——例如，知道母亲需要去学校接孩子，便主动提出多留一会儿以完成项目。然而，这也可能导致一种“被动伤害”。在这种情况下，管理者可能并不会主动破坏或解雇身为母亲的同事，但可能忽视对她们的晋升或提供与工作相关的培训。具有讽刺意味的是，职业父亲仍被视为有能力，并不会在办公室中遭受同等程度的忽视。

相比之下，无家可归者通常被刻板地认为在热情和能力两方面均“低下”，并被视为社会的负担。这种刻板印象滋生了轻蔑情绪，导致该群体遭受主动歧视，成为“被动”和“主动”伤害的对象——例如，在街头分别被路人无视或遭受激烈骚扰（Cuddy, Fiske & Glick, 2007；Fiske, 2012）。此类行为可能具有生物学基础，因为研究表明，无家可归者（以及社会认知模型（SCM）中同属低热情、低能力类别的其他群体，如吸毒者）无法有效激活通常参与社会功能的脑区。由于该脑区在遇到SCM其余三类群体中的任何一类成员时通常会被激活，这表明无家可归者在大脑中被“非人化”（Harris & Fiske, 2007；Fiske, 2012）。幸运的是，通过鼓励人们设身处地为弱势群体着想，例如通过人性化描述他们并想象他们喜欢的食物类型，可以避免这种现象。因此，通过应用SCM，人们可以更好地理解自己对特定群体产生某种反应的原因，并调整自身行为以防止歧视。

将刻板印象内容模型扩展至无生命物体

尽管社会认知模型（SCM）传统上被用于研究社会群体之间的互动，但一些研究人员正在评估该模型是否能够预测人们对无生命物体的态度。例如，研究者已证明，特定的产品品牌可以通过温暖度（意图）和能力度（能力）的量表进行分类（Kervyn, Fiske & Malone, 2012）。像生产受欢迎的巧克力棒或汽水的品牌通常被视为对消费者友好、有能力且出于善意，这种认知会引发钦佩和忠诚，从而促进更多购买行为。相反，那些遭受负面报道的品牌——例如卷入漏油事件的石油公司——则被认为居心不良且能力不足，从而引发轻蔑情绪，并劝阻潜在消费者。有趣的是，也存在态度矛盾的产品类别，包括令人羡慕的奢侈商品（被归类为居心不良但有能力）以及令人同情的政府补贴品牌，例如邮政服务（被视为可能缺乏能力但值得信赖）。

然而，社会认知模型（SCM）的应用并不仅限于消费行为。其他研究者正在评估温暖-能力刻板印象是否会影响人们对机器的感知（Oliveira, R., Arriaga, P., Correia, F. & Paiva, A. 2018 和 2019）。有趣的是，这些研究表明，人们最钦佩并更偏爱那些表现出温暖特质的机器人——例如，在模拟纸牌游戏中被编程为提供鼓励性语言的机器人——即使这些机器被设定为在特定任务中显得无能并犯错。这可能是因为人们认为会犯错的机器人更接近人类。因此，通过应用社会认知模型，工程师可以改进类人机器人的设计，创造出未来人们更愿意与之互动的机器。

刻板印象内容模型（Stereotype Content Model, SCM）最初由苏珊·菲斯克（Susan Fiske）及其同事提出（Fiske, Cuddy, Glick & Xu, 2002）；另见 Fiske（2012）以及……

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Social Psychology

社会心理学

Foundations of Social Psychology

社会心理学基础

Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination

刻板印象、偏见与歧视

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

关键术语与概念

固有印象内容模型

warmth and competence in stereotypes

The Stereotype Content Model explains how people judge social groups using two main ideas: warmth and competence. Warmth means a group’s perceived intent, or whether it seems likely to help or cause harm. Competence means the group’s ability to carry out that intent. Susan Fiske and colleagues first proposed this model, and it helps show why first impressions can shape behavior toward other people.

The model places stereotypes into four main categories. A group can be low in warmth and low in competence, high in both, low in warmth but high in competence, or high in warmth but low in competence. Each pattern tends to produce a different feeling. These feelings are contempt, admiration, envy, and pity, and they can lead to discrimination.

Research on gender in the workplace shows how the model works in real life. Employed mothers are often seen as warm but not very capable. That can lead to pity, which may make coworkers more likely to help, such as staying late to finish a project. But it can also cause passive harm, where managers do not actively attack them but still skip promotions or job training. Employed fathers are usually seen as capable, so they do not face the same level of neglect.

The homeless are often viewed as low in both warmth and competence. This stereotype can create contempt and lead to both passive and active harm. People may ignore them, or they may harass them on the street. Studies also suggest a brain-based response, because the homeless and other groups in this category, such as drug addicts, do not strongly activate a neural region involved in social function. That may mean they are dehumanized in the brain.

One way to reduce this response is to humanize people who are disadvantaged. For example, people can try to imagine what food they like to eat or what daily life is like for them. This kind of perspective taking can help people understand their reactions and change their behavior. In that way, the Stereotype Content Model can be used to better prevent discrimination.

Researchers have also tested whether warmth and competence can describe inanimate objects. Some brands, like popular candy bars or sodas, are seen as friendly, capable, and well-intentioned. That usually leads to admiration and loyalty, which can increase purchases. Other brands, such as an oil company linked to a spill, may be seen as ill-intentioned and incompetent, which can create contempt and drive buyers away.

The model can also apply to ambivalent products. Luxury items may seem capable but ill-intentioned, which makes them envied. Government-subsidized brands, such as the post office, may seem trustworthy but less capable, which can make them pitied. Researchers are also studying machines. People often prefer robots that seem warm, such as robots that offer encouragement during a card game, even if they make mistakes on a task. Those fallible robots may seem more human, and that insight can help engineers design androids people want to interact with.

Warmth and Competence in Stereotypes

in- and out-groups

In-Group Bias and Scapegoating

In-group bias and scapegoating help explain how people react to groups they belong to and groups they see as different. An in-group is a group a person identifies with or feels part of. An out-group is a group a person does not belong to and sees as fundamentally different. People often use group membership as part of their identity and self-esteem. Gender, race, age, and social economic group can all serve as in-groups. For example, if a person is female, females are the in-group and males...

stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination

How Bias Shapes Social Group Behavior

Prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination are ways bias can shape how people think and act toward social groups. Social groups help form identity, and people can belong to many groups at once, including gender, race, ethnicity, nationality, social class, religion, sexual orientation, and profession. Differences can be hard for some people to accept, but education, contact, and relationships with other cultural groups can reduce prejudice. Even imagining a positive interaction with someone from...

stereotype content model

The Stereotype Content Model explains how people judge social groups using two main ideas: warmth and competence. Warmth means a group’s perceived intent, or whether it seems likely to help or cause harm. Competence means the group’s ability to carry out that intent. Susan Fiske and colleagues first proposed this model, and it helps show why first impressions can shape behavior toward other people. The model places stereotypes into four main categories. A group can be low in warmth and low in...

robbers cave

Robbers Cave and Group Conflict

The Robbers Cave study shows how group conflict can grow when teams are forced to compete. In the 1950s, two boys’ groups at an Oklahoma summer camp, called the Rattlers and the Eagles, entered a week-long tournament. As the competition continued, their hostility grew into name-calling, fistfights, vandalism, and damage to property. The study also showed one way to reduce that tension. Researchers used superordinate goals, which are shared goals that groups can only reach by working together.

stereotype threat and self-fulfilling prophecies

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How Stereotypes Shape Behavior

Stereotypes can shape behavior through self-fulfilling prophecy and confirmation bias. A self-fulfilling prophecy happens when an expectation changes how someone acts, and that behavior helps make the expectation come true. When people hold stereotypes about others, they may treat them in ways that match those expectations. That treatment can then push the other person to act in the same way, which seems to confirm the stereotype. A classic study by Rosenthal and Jacobson in 1968 showed this...

key terms and concepts

Learn how warmth and competence shape stereotypes, workplace bias, and reactions to brands and robots through the Stereotype Content Model.

Warmth and Competence in Stereotypes | JoVE K12

JoVE Core Social Psychology offers a comprehensive learning experience on the principles of social behavior through concise, animated video lessons. The series explores key topics such as self-concept, social cognition, group dynamics, stereotypes, and relationships. It provides a structured foundation for understanding human behavior in social situations. Students gain insights into how individuals think, feel, and behave in social contexts while examining the psychological processes that influence interactions and judgments. By integrating theory with real-world applications, these lessons offer a clear and engaging approach to mastering essential concepts in social psychology.

social psychology

JoVE Core 社会心理学将我们社会生活的基础带入到现实生活当中。我们会通过 66 节简单明了且通俗易懂的动画视频课程，向您解释该领域的主要概念。此外，在另外 25 个科学家行动视频中，我们演示了在实验室中进行的经典和原始研究实验。

Warmth and Competence in Stereotypes

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