Name: how acids and bases form ions
Uploaded: 2020-09-03T13:38:26.000Z
Duration: 3 min 26 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

north-carolina-k-12-science-standard-course-of-study

North Carolina K-12 Science Standard Course of Study

9-12

Physical Science

Matter and its Interactions

PS.PSc.2.4

Acids, Bases and Neutralization Reactions

人的胃是个包含胃液的肌肉组织，其中包括了大量用来 消化食物的盐酸。这种食物会提升胃的酸性程度，因此会造成胃酸倒流。为了中和过多的酸性，摄入碱性食品，或是碱性物质像是抗酸药，都可以缓解灼烧的不适感。这就是酸碱中和的一个例子。最简单的酸就是 可解离氢原子的物质。在水溶液当中，它们会伴随着相对应的阴离子 来释放带正电的氢离子，或是质子。这些质子会和水分子反应后 形成水合氢离子。举例来说，一个硝酸水溶液当中 包含水合氢离子和硝酸根离子。其他较常见的酸性物质有盐酸、硫酸和磷酸。如果要知道酸是单质子还是多质子的话，就要依靠一个分子所解离的氢 离子数有多少来判定。像是都只有一个可解离 氢原子的盐酸和硝酸 都是单质子酸的例子，那么当然硫酸和磷酸就会被归类为多质子酸。硫酸是双质子分子而且会依序的是出它的两个质子，而磷酸 则三质子分子并且是依序的解离成三步骤。另一边，最简单的碱性化合物就是 在水溶液中产生的带负电的氢氧根离子。最简单辨识碱性物质的方法就是它会包含羟基；举例来说，氢氧化钠、氢氧化钾 和氢氧化钙都是碱性物质。像这种碱性物质被加到水里时会解离成 氢氧根离子和相对应的金属阳离子。但是像氨这种非氢氧化物汗水发生反应的时候，就会接受水分子中的质子 来产生出氨离子和氢氧根离子。通常酸和碱会形成盐加水。因此，像这种酸碱反应也叫做中合反应，因为酸性的质子莫耳数 和碱性的氢氧根离子莫耳数是相等的。举例来说，当同样容量的硝酸水溶液 和氢氧化钾水溶液融合的时候，在溶液中的水合氢离子和氢氧根离 子数量是一样的。因此，水合氢离子和氢氧根离子数量 就会完全的互相中合后结合成水，没有任何的水合氢离子和氢氧根离子数量留下。不仅如此硝酸根阴离子和钾阳离子也会互相结合后 形成盐类，也就是硝酸钾。有的中合反应会形成汽化现象。举例来说，盐酸和亚硫酸钾互相反应后 形成氯化钾、水 和通过亚硫酸盐-亚硫酸氢盐平衡系统的 二氧化硫气体。

酸、碱与中和反应

酸碱反应是一种氢离子H + 从一种化学物质转移到另一种化学物质的反应。这种反应对于许多自然和技术过程都至关重要，从细胞或湖泊和海洋内部的化学转化到工业规模生产的化肥，药品和其他对社会至关重要的物质，都具有重要意义。
 
 有几种定义酸的方法。在水溶液中，酸是一种可溶解产生氢离子的物质。
 
 <img alt =“ Eq1” src =“ https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1029/1029_Equations-01.png” style =“ height：40px ;“ /> 
 
 这是酸的阿伦尼乌斯定义，以瑞典化学家斯万特·阿伦尼乌斯（Svante Arrhenius，1859＆ndash; 1927）命名。用符号H + 表示的氢离子称为质子。在溶液中，质子通过氧上的孤对与水分子化学结合，形成水合氢离子H 3 O + 。
 
 <img alt =“ Eq2” src =“ https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1029/1029_Equations-02.png” style =“ height：40px ;“ /> 
 
 将酸离子化的化学方程式写为
 
 <img alt =“ Eq3” src =“ https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1029/1029_Equations-03.png” style =“ height：40px;“ /> 
 
 以这种方式与水完全反应的酸称为强酸。 HCl，HNO 3 和HBr就是几个例子。
 
 日常生活中遇到的大多数酸都是弱酸。水果中的柠檬酸，醋中的乙酸和牛奶中的乳酸是几个例子。弱酸的一个常见例子是乙酸，它是食用醋中的主要成分。在典型条件下溶于水时，只有约1%的乙酸分子以离子形式出现，即CH 3 CO 2 ＆minus; 。＆nbsp; 
 
 <img alt =“ Eq4” src =“ https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1029/1029_Equations-04.png” style =“ height：40px ;“ /> 
 
 在上式中使用双箭头表示该过程的部分反应。
 
 碱是一种溶于水的物质，可产生氢氧根离子OH−。最常见的碱是由碱金属或碱土金属阳离子（第1和2组）与氢氧根离子结合而成的离子化合物，例如NaOH和Ca（OH） 2 。与前面讨论的酸化合物不同，这些化合物不会与水发生化学反应，因此不会与水发生化学反应。相反，它们溶解并解离，将氢氧离子直接释放到溶液中。例如，KOH和Ba（OH） 2 溶解在水中并完全解离以生成阳离子（分别为K + 和Ba 2 + ）和氢氧根离子OH−。这些碱以及在水中完全分解的其他氢氧化物被认为是强碱。
 
 以氢氧化钠在水中的溶解为例：
 
 <img alt =“ Eq5” src =“ https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1029/1029_Equations-05.png” style =“ height：40px ;“ /> 
 
 该等式证实了氢氧化钠是碱。当溶解在水中时，NaOH会解离，生成Na + 和OH + 离子。对于任何其他包含氢氧根离子的离子化合物也是如此。由于离子化合物在典型条件下溶于水时，离解过程基本完成，因此NaOH和其他离子氢氧化物均归为强碱。
 
 与离子型氢氧化物不同，某些化合物通过与水分子发生化学反应溶解时会生成氢氧根离子。在所有情况下，这些化合物仅发生部分反应，因此被列为弱碱。这些类型的化合物在自然界中也很丰富，并且是各种技术中的重要商品。例如，全球弱碱氨的生产通常每年远远超过100公吨，因为它被广泛用作农业肥料，其他化合物的化学合成原料以及家用清洁剂中的活性成分。氨溶解在水中后会发生部分反应，产生氢氧根离子，如下所示：
 
 <img alt =“ Eq6” src =“ https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1029/1029_Equations-06.png” style =“ height：40px ;“ /> 
 
 顾名思义，这是一种酸碱反应，涉及H + 离子从水分子到氨分子的转移。在典型条件下，只有约1％的溶解氨以NH 4 + 离子的形式存在。
 
 中和反应是酸碱反应的一种特殊类型，其中反应物是酸和碱（而不是水），产物通常是盐和水：
 
 <img alt =” Eq7“ src =” https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1029/1029_Equations-07.png“ style =” height：40px;“ /> 
 
 为说明中和反应，请考虑摄入典型的抗酸剂（例如氧化镁牛奶）（固体Mg（OH） 2 的水悬浮液）以缓解与胃酸过多相关的症状时发生的情况（HCl）：
 
 <img alt =“ Eq8” src =“ https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1029/1029_Equations-08.png” style =“ height：40px ;“ /> 
 
 请注意，除水外，该反应还会生成盐，氯化镁。酸（强或弱）中的H + （ aq ）与OH ＆minus; （ aq ）（或由弱碱与水反应生成）形成H 2 O（ l ）。例如，HCl（强酸）和NaOH（强碱）的水溶液反应如下：
 
 <img alt =“ Eq9” src =“ https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1029/1029_Equations-09.png” style =“ height：40px ;“ /> 
 
 HCl和NaOH都经历100％电离。因此，完整的离子方程式可写为：
 
 <img alt =“ Eq10” src =“ https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1029/1029_Equations-10.png” style =“ height：40px ;“ /> 
 
 Cl -和Na + 被称为旁观者离子，它们相互抵消，给出的净离子方程为：
 
 <img alt =“ Eq11” src =“ https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1029/1029_Equations-11.png” style =“ height：40 px;“ /> 
 
 本文改编自<a href="https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/4-2-classifying-chemical-reactions"> OpenStax 化学2e，第4.2节：对化学反应进行分类。</a>

酸碱反应是指氢离子（H+）从一种化学物种转移到另一种化学物种的反应。这类反应在……中具有核心重要性。

Education

教育

Book

Chemistry

化学

Chemical Quantities and Aqueous Reactions

化学量与水溶液反应

chemical-quantities-and-aqueous-reactions

how acids and bases form ions

Acids and bases form ions in water through acid-base reactions. These reactions move a hydrogen ion, H+, from one chemical species to another. They matter in many natural and technological processes, from chemistry inside cells and in lakes and oceans to the large-scale production of fertilizers, pharmaceuticals, and other useful substances.

In water, an acid is a substance that produces hydrogen ions. This is the Arrhenius definition of an acid. The H+ ion is also called a proton. In solution, these protons combine with water molecules to form hydronium ions, H3O+.

Acids that react completely with water are called strong acids. Common examples include HCl, HNO3, and HBr. Most acids people encounter in daily life are weak acids. Citric acid in fruits, acetic acid in vinegar, and lactic acid in milk are examples. Acetic acid is a familiar weak acid, and under typical conditions only about 1% of its molecules are in the ionized form, CH3CO2−. A double arrow shows that this reaction is only partial.

A base is a substance that dissolves in water to yield hydroxide ions, OH−. The most common bases are ionic compounds made of alkali or alkaline earth metal cations from groups 1 and 2 with hydroxide ions, such as NaOH and Ca(OH)2. These compounds do not react chemically with water. Instead, they dissolve and dissociate, releasing hydroxide ions directly into solution.

KOH and Ba(OH)2 are examples of strong bases because they dissociate completely in water. The same is true for sodium hydroxide. When NaOH dissolves, it gives Na+ and OH− ions. Any ionic compound that contains hydroxide ions behaves this way under typical conditions, so these hydroxides are classified as strong bases.

Some compounds make hydroxide ions by reacting with water molecules instead of simply dissociating. These compounds react only partially, so they are weak bases. Ammonia is a common example. It is produced on a very large scale because it is used as an agricultural fertilizer, a starting material for chemical synthesis, and an ingredient in household cleaners. When ammonia dissolves in water, it reacts partially to form OH− and NH4+ ions. This is an acid-base reaction because H+ ions move from water molecules to ammonia molecules. Under typical conditions, only about 1% of dissolved ammonia is present as NH4+.

A neutralization reaction is a special acid-base reaction in which an acid and a base react, but water is not a reactant. The products are often a salt and water. Milk of magnesia is a common antacid made of solid Mg(OH)2 in water. It helps relieve excess stomach acid, HCl, by neutralizing it. This reaction forms water and the salt magnesium chloride.

In neutralization, H+(aq) from the acid combines with OH−(aq) from the base to make H2O(l). For example, HCl and NaOH are both completely ionized in water. Their complete ionic equation includes Na+ and Cl− ions, but these are spectator ions because they cancel out. The net ionic equation shows the essential change: H+(aq) + OH−(aq) → H2O(l).

How Acids and Bases Form Ions

precipitation reactions

Predicting Precipitation in Aqueous Reactions

Precipitation reactions happen when two aqueous solutions of soluble salts are mixed and an insoluble ionic compound forms. That solid is called a precipitate. The ions in solution exchange partners, so these reactions are also called double displacement, double replacement, exchange, or metathesis reactions. These reactions are useful in chemistry for identifying metal ions in a compound. They also support gravimetric methods, which measure composition by the mass of a substance. Whether a...

reaction stoichiometry

Using Balanced Equations to Predict Amounts

Balanced chemical equations show how much of each substance reacts and forms in a chemical change. The formulas identify the reactants and products, which helps classify the reaction. The coefficients show the relative numbers of each substance, which lets chemists measure the relationships between amounts consumed and produced. These quantitative relationships are called stoichiometry. The word comes from the Greek words stoicheion, meaning element, and metron, meaning measure. Stoichiometry...

acids, bases and neutralization reactions

Acids and bases form ions in water through acid-base reactions. These reactions move a hydrogen ion, H+, from one chemical species to another. They matter in many natural and technological processes, from chemistry inside cells and in lakes and oceans to the large-scale production of fertilizers, pharmaceuticals, and other useful substances. In water, an acid is a substance that produces hydrogen ions. This is the Arrhenius definition of an acid. The H+ ion is also called a proton. In...

limiting reactant

Limiting Reactant in Water Formation

Limiting reactants control how much product forms in a chemical reaction. In a balanced equation, the listed amounts of reactants and products are called stoichiometric amounts. In real reactions, the reactants are not always present in those exact proportions. The limiting reactant is the reactant that gets used up first. Once it is gone, the reaction stops making more product. The other reactant is called the excess reactant. Chemists often use extra amounts of one reactant to make sure the...

reaction yield

Calculating Percent Yield in Reactions

Percent yield shows how much product a chemical reaction actually makes compared with how much it should make. The expected amount is called the theoretical yield. It comes from the balanced chemical equation and the stoichiometry, or mole ratios, in that equation. The theoretical yield assumes that the limiting reactant is completely converted into the desired product. The product collected after a reaction is the actual yield. In many cases, the actual yield is lower than the theoretical...

general properties of solutions

Solvents, Solutes, and Solution Types

Solutions are common mixtures found in everyday life. Ocean water, air, and gasoline are all examples of solutions. These mixtures contain two or more types of atoms or molecules in varying amounts. A solution is a homogeneous mixture, which means its composition is uniform throughout. This is different from a heterogeneous mixture, which has a non-uniform composition. In a homogeneous mixture, the components are evenly spread out and thoroughly mixed. Every solution has a solvent and a...

solution concentration and dilution

Molarity and Dilution in Solutions

Molarity and dilution are key ideas for describing solution concentration. Concentration means the relative amount of one component in a solution. In many solutions, one component is present in much larger amount. That component is the solvent, which acts as the medium that holds the other parts dissolved or dispersed. Water is a very common solvent, so aqueous solutions are common on Earth. A solute is the component present at a much lower concentration than the solvent. Chemists often...

electrolyte and nonelectrolyte solutions

Conductivity in Electrolyte Solutions

Electrolyte solutions conduct electricity because they contain mobile ions. The amount of current depends on how many ions are present in the aqueous solution. A solution with more dissolved ions conducts better, while a solution with few or no ions conducts poorly. Strong electrolytes dissociate completely in water. This complete dissociation is shown with a single forward arrow. Water-soluble ionic compounds such as sodium chloride split into sodium cations and chloride anions in solution.

solubility of ionic compounds

Solubility Rules for Ionic Salts

Solubility rules help predict whether ionic salts will dissolve in water. Solubility is the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve in a given amount of solvent at a set temperature and pressure. It is often measured in molarity, or moles per liter (mol/L). A compound is soluble if it dissolves in water. When a soluble salt dissolves, its ions separate and spread evenly through the solution. This physical change is called dissociation. Potassium chloride, KCl, is a simple example. Water...

chemical reactions in aqueous solutions

Aqueous Reactions and Ionic Equations

Aqueous reactions are chemical reactions that take place in water. Water is a good solvent, so it can dissolve many substances. Because of that, many chemical reactions happen in aqueous solution. In high school chemistry, these reactions are often grouped into three common patterns: precipitation, acid-base, and oxidation-reduction. A precipitation reaction happens when ions in two aqueous ionic compounds exchange partners and form an insoluble salt, called a precipitate. In an acid-base...

oxidation–reduction reactions

Redox Reactions and Oxidation Numbers

Redox reactions are chemical changes in which electrons move between reactants, and oxidation numbers help track that change. The term oxidation once referred only to reactions with molecular oxygen, but it now covers a wider reaction class called oxidation-reduction, or redox, reactions. Some redox reactions form ionic products. A simple example is the reaction between sodium and chlorine that produces sodium chloride. To follow what happens to each reactant, chemists often write...

oxidation numbers

Assigning Oxidation States in Redox Reactions

Oxidation states help track electron transfer in redox reactions. An oxidation number, also called an oxidation state, is a hypothetical number that shows the effective charge of an atom or element. Chemists assign it by using a set of rules. In an ionic compound, oxidation numbers are based on how many electrons move between reacting species. For example, when calcium chloride forms, calcium loses two valence electrons and the two chlorine atoms each gain one electron. In CaCl2, calcium has...

acids, bases, and neutralization reactions

synthesis and decomposition reactions

Building and Breaking in Chemical Reactions

Synthesis and decomposition are two redox reactions that show how substances can be built up or broken down. Synthesis means to make something, while decomposition means to break something apart. These reactions also involve chemical changes and energy changes. Synthesis reactions are also called combination reactions. In a synthesis reaction, two or more substances join to form one more complex substance. They are often written as A + B → AB or A + B → C. One example is the formation of...

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key terms

关键术语

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关键关系与方程式

chapter exercises

章后习题

appendices

附录

chemical quantities and aqueous reactions

Learn how acids and bases form ions in water, including strong and weak acids, strong and weak bases, ammonia, and neutralization reactions.

How Acids and Bases Form Ions | JoVE K12

chemistry

PS.PSc.2.6

Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills

High School

Chemistry and Physics

IPC.8

IPC.8.A

Pennsylvania State Academic Standards

Chemical Reactions

3.2.9-12.C

3.2.9-12.G

Louisiana Student Standards for Science

Matter And Its Interactions

HS-PS1-2

HS-PS1-7

ohios-learning-standards-and-model-curriculum

Ohio’s Learning Standards and Model Curriculum

Interactions Of Matter

Chemical reactions

Tennessee Academic Standards

Matter and Its Interactions

CHEM1.PS1.4

Arizona Science Standards

HS+C.P1

HS+C.P1U1.5

CHEM.9

CHEM.9.B

Alabama Course of Study Science

9-12.PS.3.5.d

9-12.PS.3.6.d

Florida Department of Education

SC.912.P.8

SC.912.P.8.8

new-york-state-science-learning-standards

New York State Science Learning Standards

HS. Chemical Reactions

HS-PS1-4.

HS-PS1-12.

Georgia Standards of Excellence

SC6.

Neutralization Reactions

Classifying Matter by State

Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes it undergoes. Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Matter is all around us; the air, ...

Classifying Matter by Composition

Matter: Pure Substances and Mixtures
According to its composition, the matter can be classified into two broad categories &mdash; pure substances and ...

Elements: Chemical Symbols and Isotopes

A chemical symbol is an abbreviation used to indicate an element or an atom of an element. For example, the symbol for mercury is Hg. The same symbol is ...

Molecules and Compounds

Atoms and Molecules

Everything in the universe is made up of matter, and matter is composed of a combination of elements. An atom is the smallest unit of ...

Solution Formation

There is no one solvent that can dissolve every type of solute. Some substances that readily dissolve in a certain solvent might be insoluble in a ...

Colloids

Children at play often make suspensions such as mixtures of mud and water, flour and water, or a suspension of solid pigments in water known as tempera ...

Construct an explanation to classify matter as a pure substance or mixture; homogeneous or heterogeneous; element or compound; solution, colloid or suspension.

PS.PSc.1.1

Phase Transitions

Whether solid, liquid, or gas, a substance&#39;s state depends on the order and arrangement of its particles (atoms, molecules, or ions). Particles in the ...

phase-transitions-vaporization-and-condensation

Phase Transitions: Vaporization and Condensation

The physical form of a substance changes on changing its temperature. For example, raising the temperature of a liquid causes the liquid to vaporize ...

Vapor Pressure

When a liquid vaporizes in a closed container, gas molecules cannot escape. As these gas phase molecules move randomly about, they will occasionally ...

Clausius-Clapeyron Equation

The equilibrium between a liquid and its vapor depends on the temperature of the system; a rise in temperature causes a corresponding rise in the vapor ...

Phase Transitions: Melting and Freezing

Heating a crystalline solid increases the average energy of its atoms, molecules, or ions, and the solid gets hotter. At some point, the added energy ...

phase-transitions-sublimation-and-deposition

Phase Transitions: Sublimation and Deposition

Some solids can transition directly into the gaseous state, bypassing the liquid state, via a process known as sublimation. At room temperature and ...

Heating and Cooling Curves

When a substance&#8212;isolated from its environment&#8212;is subjected to heat changes, corresponding changes in temperature and phase of the substance ...

Phase Diagrams

A phase diagram combines plots of pressure versus temperature for the liquid-gas, solid-liquid, and solid-gas phase-transition equilibria of a substance. ...

Use models to compare the phases of matter and the physical changes they undergo.

PS.PSc.1.2

physical-and-chemical-properties-of-matter

Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter

The characteristics that enable us to distinguish one substance from another are called properties.

Physical Properties of Matter

A physical property is ...

molecular-comparison-of-gases-liquids-and-solids

Molecular Comparison of Gases, Liquids, and Solids

Particles in a solid are tightly packed together (fixed shape) and often arranged in a regular pattern; in a liquid, they are close together with no ...

Intermolecular vs Intramolecular Forces

Intermolecular forces (IMF) are electrostatic attractions arising from charge-charge interactions between molecules. The strength of the intermolecular ...

Intermolecular Forces

Atoms and molecules interact through bonds (or forces): intramolecular and intermolecular. The forces are electrostatic as they arise from interactions ...

comparing-intermolecular-forces-melting-point-boiling-point

Comparing Intermolecular Forces: Melting Point, Boiling Point, and Miscibility

Intermolecular forces are attractive forces that exist between molecules. They dictate several bulk properties, such as melting points, boiling points, ...

Carry out investigations to compare physical and chemical properties of matter.

PS.PSc.1.3

The Atomic Theory of Matter

The earliest recorded discussion of the basic structure of matter comes from ancient Greek philosophers. Leucippus and Democritus argued that all matter ...

Subatomic Particles

Dalton was only partially correct about the particles that make up matter. All matter is composed of atoms, and atoms are composed of three smaller ...

The Bohr Model

Following the work of Ernest Rutherford and his colleagues in the early twentieth century, the picture of atoms consisting of tiny dense nuclei surrounded ...

Emission Spectra

When solids, liquids, or condensed gases are heated sufficiently, they radiate some of the excess energy as light. Photons produced in this manner have a ...

The de Broglie Wavelength

In the macroscopic world, objects that are large enough to be seen by the naked eye follow the rules of classical physics. A billiard ball moving on a ...

The Uncertainty Principle

Werner Heisenberg considered the limits of how accurately one can measure properties of an electron or other microscopic particles. He determined that ...

Use models to interpret the data presented in Bohr diagrams and electron dot diagrams for neutral atoms of elements 1 through 18.

PS.PSc.1.4

Ions and Ionic Charges

In ordinary chemical reactions, the nucleus &mdash; which contains the protons and neutrons of each atom and thus identifies the element &mdash; remains ...

Use models to compare representations of atoms, ions, and isotopes.

PS.PSc.1.5

The Periodic Table

As early chemists discovered more elements, they realized that various elements could be grouped by their similar chemical behaviors. One such grouping ...

Periodic Classification of the Elements

The periodic table arranges atoms based on increasing atomic number so that elements with the same chemical properties recur periodically. When their ...

atomic-radii-and-effective-nuclear-charge

Atomic Radii and Effective Nuclear Charge

The elements in groups of the periodic table exhibit similar chemical behavior. This similarity occurs because the members of a group have the same number ...

Ionic Radii

Ionic radius is the measure used to describe the size of an ion. A cation always has fewer electrons and the same number of protons as the parent atom; it ...

Ionization Energy

The amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from a gaseous atom in its ground state is called its first ionization energy ...

Electron Affinity

The electron affinity (EA) is the energy change for adding an electron to a gaseous atom to form an anion (negative ion).



This process can be either ...

Alkali Metals

Group 1 elements are soft and shiny metallic solids. They are malleable, ductile, and good conductors of heat and electricity. The melting points of the ...

Halogens

Group 17 elements, known as halogens, are nonmetals. At room temperature, fluorine and chlorine are gases, bromine is a liquid, and iodine a solid. ...

Noble Gases


The elements in group 18 are noble gases (helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon). They earned the name &ldquo;noble&rdquo; because they were ...

Use the Periodic Table as a model to predict the relative properties (metallic/nonmetallic character, ionic charge, and reactivity) and arrangement of elements based on the pattern of valence electrons in the outermost energy levels of atoms.

PS.PSc.1.6

Understand types, properties, and structure of matter.

How Acids and Bases Form Ions

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