Name: cell cycle stages in mitosis
Uploaded: 2019-03-11T09:21:14.000Z
Duration: 2 min 3 s
Channel: JoVE

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North Carolina K-12 Science Standard Course of Study

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From Molecules to Organisms- Structures and Processes

LS.Bio.2.1

Mitosis and Cytokinesis

<p>Mitose besteht aus fünf verschiedenen Stadien und ist eine Form der Teilung, bei der das genetische Material einer Zelle zwischen zwei Tochterzellen aufgeteilt wird.
  Erst kondensiert Nucleinchromatin während der Prophase beim Menschen zu X-förmigen Chromosomen, die aus Schwesterchromatidenpaaren bestehen, die an Zentromerübergängen gebunden sind.
  Gleichzeitig wandern außerhalb des Zellkerns zwei L-förmige Organellen, die als Zentrosomen bezeichnet werden, zu gegenüberliegenden Zellseiten.
 <p>Dabei wachsen Mikrotubuli-Stäbchen aus beiden entweder nach innen oder nach außen und bilden eine bahnförmige Spindelvorrichtung.
  Als nächstes löst sich die Kernhülle während der Prometaphase auf und setzt die Chromosomen den anderen Inhalten der Zelle aus.
  Proteinstrukturen erscheinen auch auf beiden Seiten der Zentromere, eine für jedes Chromatid.
 <p>Sobald sich diese Kinetochoren gebildet haben, befestigen sich an ihnen sich erstreckende innere Mikrotubuli, wobei jedes Schwesterchromatid an einen anderen Zellpol gebunden ist.
  Die Mitose schreitet dann zur Metaphase fort, in der der Spindelapparat die Chromosomen so umordnet, dass sie in einer festen Reihe entlang des Äquators der Zelle ähnlich ausgerichtet sind.
  Mit Anaphase verkürzen sich kinetochor-fixierte Mikrotubuli und Schwesterchromatiden, die nun einzeln als Chromosomen bezeichnet werden, werden auseinandergezogen.
 <p>Diese und andere Mikrotubulusdynamiken verlängern ebenfalls die Zelle.
  Schließlich landen die Chromosomen während der Telophase auf gegenüberliegenden Zellseiten, wo sich der Spindelapparat löst.
  Das genetische Material löst sich und zwei Kernhüllen, eine um jedes Chromosomenset kommen hinzu.
  Während der Telophase wird die Zelle in einem bestimmten Prozess, der als Zytokinese bezeichnet wird, zytoplasmatisch geteilt.
  Somit ist das Endergebnis der Mitose ein Zellpaar, das genetisch mit deren Vorläufer identisch ist.

<p>Guertin, David A., Susanne Trautmann und Dannel McCollum. "Zytokinese in Eukaryoten." <em>Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev.</em> 66, Nr. 2 (1. Juni 2002): 155–78. [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1128/MMBR.66.2.155-178.2002" target="__blank">Quelle</a>]</p>

mitose und zytokinese

<p>In eukaryotischen Zellen wird der Zyklus der Zellteilung in verschiedene, koordinierte zelluläre Prozesse unterteilt. Hierzu gehört das Zellwachstum, die DNA-Replikation/Chromosomenduplikation, die Verteilung der Chromosomen auf die Tochterzellen und schließlich die Zellteilung. Der Zellzyklus ist streng gesteuert durch regulatorische Systeme sowie durch extrazelluläre Signale, welche die Zellproliferation beeinflussen.</p>
 
 <p>Die Prozesse des Zellzyklus geschehen in normalen menschlichen Zellen in einem Zeitraum von 24 Stunden und in zwei wesentlichen unterscheidbaren Phasen ab. Das erste Stadium ist die DNA-Replikation, während der S-Phase der Interphase. Das zweite Stadium ist die mitotische (M) Phase. Sie umfasst die Trennung der verdoppelten Chromosomen in zwei neue Zellkerne (Mitose) und die Teilung des Zytoplasmas (Zytokinese). Die beiden Phasen sind durch Intervalle (G<sub>1</sub> und G<sub>2</sub> gaps) getrennt, in denen sich die Zelle auf die Replikation und Teilung vorbereitet.</p>
 
 <h4>Der Mitose Prozess</h4>
 
 <p>Die Mitose kann in fünf verschiedene Stadien unterteilt werden. Dazu gehören Prophase, Prometaphase, Metaphase, Anaphase und Telophase. Die Zytokinese, die während der Anaphase oder Telophase (je nach Zelle) beginnt, ist Teil der M-Phase, aber nicht Teil der Mitose.</p>
 
 <h4>Die Prophase</h4>
 
 <p>Wenn die Zelle in die Mitose eintritt, beginnen ihre replizierten Chromosomen zu kondensieren und werden als fadenförmige Strukturen sichtbar. Dieser Prozess geschieht mit Hilfe von speziellen Proteinen, den so genannten Condensinen. Dann beginnt sich der mitotische Spindelapparat zwischen den Zentrosomen zu bilden, die während der S-Phase verdoppelt wurden. Die Zentrosome wandern dann in Richtung der entgegengesetzten Polen der Zelle. Die Spindel besteht aus fadenförmigen Strukturen, den so genannten Mikrotubuli, welche aus monomeren Tubulinproteinen bestehen. Die Mikrotubuli der Spindel beginnen sich dann in Richtung der kondensierten Chromosomen zu verlängern. Der Nukleolus, ein Bestandteil des Nukleus, der normalerweise Ribosomen produziert, verschwindet. Dies deutet auf den bevorstehenden Zerfall des Nukleus hin.</p>
 
 <h4>Die Prometaphase</h4>
 
 <p>Während der Prometaphase verlängern sich die Mikrotubuli-Filamente aus dem Spindelapparat weiter und die Chromosomen kondensieren. Die Kernhülle bricht vollständig auf und setzt die Chromosomen frei. Einige der Mikrotubuli heften sich an die freigesetzten Chromosomen und binden an eine Proteinstruktur, dem Kinetochore. Das Kinetochore befindet sich an dem Zentromer von jedem Paar der Schwesterchromatiden. Die Mikrotubuli der Spindelfasern der entgegengesetzten Polen heften sich an die Kinetochore und fangen die kondensierten Schwesterchromatiden ein. Einige Mikrotubuli (polare und astrale Mikrotubuli) binden nicht die Chromosomen sondern helfen die Spindeln auseinander zu drücken und die Spindelpole an der Zellmembran zu verankern.</p>
 
 <h4>Die Metaphase</h4>
 
 <p>Die Mikrotubuli der Spindelfasern richten jedes Paar der vollkondensierten Schwesterchromatiden entlang des Zelläquators der Metaphasenplatte aus. Die Zelle ist nun bereit zur Teilung.</p>
 
 <h4>Die Anaphase</h4>
 
 <p>Die Mikrotubuli der gegenüberliegenden Spindelpole, die an dem Kinetochore befestigt sind, verkürzen sich und trennen die Schwesterchromatiden am Zentromer. Die Kohäsionsproteine, welche die Chromatiden zusammenhalten, werden nun abgebaut. Die verkürzenden Kinetochore-Mikrotubuli bewirken, dass jedes Chromatid des Schwesterpaares, jetzt Tochterchromosome genannt, zu einem entgegengesetzten Pol wandert.</p>
 
 <h4>Die Telophase</h4>
 
 <p>Wenn die Chromosome die entgegengesetzte Pole der Zelle erreichen, dekondensieren sie und entwickeln sich um Chromatin zu formen. Die Mikrotubuli-Filamente der Spindelfasern depolymerisieren in monomeres Tubulin, welches dann als Zytoskelett-Element in den Tochterzellen verwendet wird. Die Kernhüllen formen sich um jeden Chromosomensatz.</p>
 
 <h4>Die Zytokinese</h4>
 
 <p>Bei der Zytokinese bilden in tierischen Zellen Aktin-Filamente einen zusammenziehbaren Ring in der Plasmamembran. Dadurch entsteht eine Teilungsfurche, welche die Zelle schließlich in zwei Teile teilt. In Pflanzenzellen verbinden sich Vesikel des Golgi-Apparates, die Glucose, Enzyme und Strukturproteine tragen, zu einer neuen Zellwandplatte an der Stelle der ehemaligen Metaphasenplatte. Die wachsende Zellwandplatte verschmilzt mit den Plasmamembranen auf jeder Seite und bildet schließlich eine neue Zellwand, welche die Zelle in zwei teilt.</p>
 
 <p>Die Mitose ist nun abgeschlossen und hat zwei Tochterzellen hervorgebracht, die mit der Mutterzelle identisch sind. In den meisten menschlichen Zellen macht die Mitose etwa eine Stunde des etwa 24-stündigen Zellzyklus aus.</p>

Mitose und Zytokinese

In Eukaryoten ist der Zellteilungszyklus in verschiedene, koordinierte zelluläre Prozesse unterteilt, die das Zellwachstum, die DNA-Replikation/Chromosomenreplikation ...

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cell cycle stages in mitosis

<p class="jove_content">Cell cycle stages in mitosis show how a eukaryotic cell copies its DNA and then divides into two daughter cells. The cycle is controlled by regulatory systems and by outside signals that affect cell growth and division. In typical human cells, the full cycle takes about 24 hours and includes two major phases. The first is DNA replication during the S phase of interphase. The second is the mitotic, or M, phase, which includes mitosis and cytokinesis. G1 and G2 are the gap stages between these phases, and they give the cell time to prepare for replication and division.</p>

<p class="jove_content">Mitosis has five stages: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Cytokinesis may begin during anaphase or telophase, depending on the cell, and it is part of the M phase but not part of mitosis. As mitosis begins in prophase, the replicated chromosomes condense and become visible with the help of condensin proteins. The spindle apparatus starts to form between the duplicated centrosomes, which move to opposite poles. This spindle is made of microtubules, which are built from tubulin proteins, and the nucleolus disappears as the nucleus prepares to break down.</p>

<p class="jove_content">During prometaphase, the chromosomes finish condensing and the nuclear envelope breaks down. This releases the chromosomes into the cell. Some spindle microtubules attach to kinetochores, which are protein structures on the centromere of each pair of sister chromatids. Microtubules from opposite poles capture the sister chromatid pairs. Other microtubules, called polar and astral microtubules, help push the spindle poles apart and anchor them to the cell membrane.</p>

<p class="jove_content">In metaphase, the spindle microtubules line up each pair of fully condensed sister chromatids at the equator of the cell. This position is called the metaphase plate. The cell is then ready to divide. In anaphase, the kinetochore microtubules shorten and pull the sister chromatids apart at the centromere. The cohesion proteins that hold the chromatids together break down. Each chromatid is now a chromosome, and it moves toward an opposite pole.</p>

<p class="jove_content">In telophase, the chromosomes reach the poles and begin to decondense into chromatin. The spindle microtubules also depolymerize into tubulin monomers, which can be used again as cytoskeletal elements in the daughter cells. New nuclear envelopes form around each set of chromosomes. Cytokinesis then divides the cytoplasm. In animal cells, actin filaments form a contractile ring in the plasma membrane and create a cleavage furrow that pinches the cell in two. In plant cells, Golgi vesicles carrying glucose, enzymes, and structural proteins join to form a cell plate at the former metaphase plate. The cell plate fuses with the plasma membranes on both sides and develops into a new cell wall. Mitosis is complete, and the result is two daughter cells identical to the parent cell. In most human cells, mitosis takes about one hour of the 24-hour cell cycle.</p>

Cell Cycle Stages in Mitosis

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Cell cycle stages in mitosis show how a eukaryotic cell copies its DNA and then divides into two daughter cells. The cycle is controlled by regulatory systems and by outside signals that affect cell growth and division. In typical human cells, the full cycle takes about 24 hours and includes two major phases. The first is DNA replication during the S phase of interphase. The second is the mitotic, or M, phase, which includes mitosis and cytokinesis. G1 and G2 are the gap stages between these...

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key terms and concepts

Learn how the cell cycle leads to mitosis and cytokinesis, from DNA replication and spindle formation to chromosome separation and cell division.

Cell Cycle Stages in Mitosis | JoVE K12

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Cell Cycle Stages in Mitosis

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