Name: cell chemistry: water, ions, and molecules
Uploaded: 2023-04-30T18:28:47.000Z
Duration: 2 min 58 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

north-carolina-k-12-science-standard-course-of-study

NC K-12 Science Standard Course of Study

9-12

Biology

from-molecules-to-organisms-structures-and-processes

From Molecules to Organisms- Structures and Processes

LS.Bio.1.1

Chemistry of the Cell

Zellen sind die Grundbausteine lebender Organismen. Sie bestehen hauptsächlich aus Wasser, organischen Molekülen und anorganischen Ionen.
Wasser macht etwa 70 % der Zelle aus. Dieses wässrige Milieu im Zytoplasma ist essentiell für die Struktur der Zelle und für viele der Reaktionen, die in ihr ablaufen.
Wasser ist ein hochpolares Molekül, daher interagiert es mit anderen polaren Molekülen und Ionen in der Zelle, aber nicht mit den unpolaren.
Das hydrophile Milieu des Zytoplasmas fördert die Bildung dreidimensionaler Strukturen von Proteinen, mit unpolaren Aminosäuren im Kern und polaren Aminosäuren an der Oberfläche.
Bei der Membranbildung interagieren polare Kopfgruppen von Phospholipiden mit Wasser. Im Gegensatz dazu interagieren die unpolaren Schwänze miteinander, wodurch eine hydrophobe Barriere nach außen hin entsteht.
Der pH-Wert biologischer Flüssigkeiten in der Zelle und ihren Kompartimenten wird präzise gepuffert. Der pH-Wert des Zytoplasmas liegt bei etwa 7,2 und wird durch Moleküle wie Phosphationen reguliert.
Im Gegensatz dazu liegt der pH-Wert in den Lysosomen, den spezialisierten Zellkompartimenten, bei etwa 5. Denn Lysosomen enthalten Enzyme, die in sauren Umgebungen optimal funktionieren.
Zu den organischen Molekülen in der Zelle gehören Kohlenhydrate, Proteine, Lipide und Nukleotide. All diese verschiedenen Makromoleküle haben eine Vielzahl von Rollen.
Kohlenhydrate sind eine primäre Energiequelle, um verschiedene Stoffwechselprozesse anzutreiben; die Zelle kann jedoch auch Proteine und Lipide als Brennstoff abbauen.
Proteine können Enzyme sein, die Reaktionen katalysieren, oder sie können zur Zellstruktur beitragen.
Lipide sind ein wesentlicher Bestandteil der Zellmembranen. Darüber hinaus können diese Makromoleküle kovalent aneinander binden, um Konjugate wie Glykoproteine und Glykolipide zu bilden, die häufig in Zellmembranen vorkommen.
Nukleotide dienen als genetisches Material und verbinden sich auch mit Proteinen, um Nukleoproteine zu bilden, die die DNA in einer Zelle dicht verpacken. Das Nukleotid ATP ist auch die Energiequelle für viele zelluläre Prozesse.
Zu den anorganischen Ionen, die für die Zellfunktion entscheidend sind, gehören Natrium, Kalium, Magnesium, Kalzium, Phosphat und Chlorid. Obwohl diese Ionen weniger als 1% der Zellmasse ausmachen, haben sie innerhalb der Zelle unterschiedliche Rollen.
So werden beispielsweise Ionen wie Kalzium verwendet, um biologische Signale in einer Zelle weiterzuleiten, während Magnesium für die katalytische Aktivität vieler Enzyme unerlässlich ist.

<ol>
	<li>Cooper GM. Die Zelle: Ein molekularer Ansatz. 2. Auflage. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer Associates; 2000. Kapitel 2, Die Chemie der Zellen. Verfügbar von: <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9884/">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9884/</a></li>
	<li>Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, et al. Molekularbiologie der Zelle. 4. Auflage. New York: Garland Science; 2002. Die chemischen Bestandteile einer Zelle. Verfügbar von: <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26883/">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26883/</a></li>
	<li>Cooper GM. Die Zelle: Ein molekularer Ansatz. 2. Auflage. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer Associates; 2000. Die molekulare Zusammensetzung der Zellen. Verfügbar von: <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9879/">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9879/</a></li>
</ol>

chemie der zelle

Die Zelle besteht chemisch aus Wasser, organischen Molekülen und anorganischen Ionen. Wasser Die Polarität des Wassermoleküls und die daraus resultierende Wasserstoffbrückenbindung machen Wasser zu einer einzigartigen Substanz mit besonderen Eigenschaften, die eng mit den Prozessen des Lebens verbunden sind. Das Leben entwickelte sich ursprünglich in einer wässrigen Umgebung, und der Großteil der Zellchemie und des Stoffwechsels eines Organismus findet im wässrigen Inhalt des Zytoplasmas der Zelle statt. Besondere Eigenschaften von Wasser sind seine hohe Wärmekapazität und Verdampfungswärme, seine Fähigkeit, polare Moleküle aufzulösen, seine kohäsiven und adhäsiven Eigenschaften sowie seine Dissoziation in Ionen, die zur Festlegung des pH-Wertes führt. Das Verständnis dieser Eigenschaften von Wasser hilft, seine Bedeutung für die Erhaltung des Lebens zu verstehen. Eine der wichtigen Eigenschaften von Wasser ist, dass es ein polares Molekül ist: Wasserstoff und Sauerstoff in Wassermolekülen (H2O) bilden polare kovalente Bindungen. Während ein Wassermolekül keine Nettoladung aufweist, erzeugt die Polarität des Wassers eine leicht positive Ladung bei Wasserstoff und eine leicht negative Ladung bei Sauerstoff, was zu den Anziehungseigenschaften des Wassers beiträgt. Wasser erzeugt Ladungen, weil Sauerstoff elektronegativer ist als Wasserstoff. Dadurch ist es wahrscheinlicher, dass sich ein geteiltes Elektron in der Nähe des Sauerstoffkerns befindet als in der Nähe des Wasserstoffkerns, wodurch die teilweise negative Ladung in der Nähe des Sauerstoffs erzeugt wird. Aufgrund der Polarität des Wassers zieht jedes Wassermolekül aufgrund der entgegengesetzten Ladungen zwischen den Wassermolekülen andere Wassermoleküle an und bildet Wasserstoffbrückenbindungen. Wasser zieht auch andere polare Moleküle und Ionen an oder wird von ihnen angezogen. Eine polare Substanz, die leicht mit Wasser interagiert oder sich darin löst, ist hydrophil. Im Gegensatz dazu interagieren unpolare Moleküle wie Öle und Fette nicht gut mit Wasser. Diese unpolaren Verbindungen sind hydrophob. Organische Moleküle Proteine, Kohlenhydrate, Nukleinsäuren und Lipide sind die vier Hauptklassen biologischer Makromoleküle – große lebensnotwendige Moleküle, die aus kleineren organischen Molekülen aufgebaut sind. Makromoleküle bestehen aus einzelnen Einheiten, die Wissenschaftler Monomere nennen und die durch kovalente Bindungen zu größeren Polymeren verbunden sind. Das Polymer ist mehr als die Summe seiner Teile: Es erhält neue Eigenschaften und führt zu einem osmotischen Druck, der viel geringer ist als der, den seine Inhaltsstoffe bilden. Dies ist ein wichtiger Vorteil bei der Aufrechterhaltung der zellulären osmotischen Bedingungen. Ein Monomer verbindet sich mit einem anderen Monomer unter Freisetzung von Wassermolekülen, was zur Bildung einer kovalenten Bindung führt. Wissenschaftler nennen diese Reaktionen Dehydrierung oder Kondensation. Wenn Polymere in kleinere Einheiten (Monomere) zerfallen, verwenden sie für jede durch diese Reaktionen aufgebrochene Bindung ein Wassermolekül. Solche Reaktionen sind Hydrolysereaktionen. Dehydratisierungs- und Hydrolysereaktionen sind für alle Makromoleküle ähnlich, aber jede Monomer- und Polymerreaktion ist für ihre Klasse spezifisch. Dehydratisierungsreaktionen erfordern typischerweise einen Energieaufwand für die Bildung neuer Bindungen, während Hydrolysereaktionen typischerweise Energie durch das Aufbrechen von Bindungen freisetzen. 

 Kohlenhydrate sind eine Gruppe von Makromolekülen, die eine lebenswichtige Energiequelle für die Zelle darstellen und Pflanzenzellen, Pilzen und allen Arthropoden, zu denen Hummer, Krabben, Garnelen, Insekten und Spinnen gehören, strukturelle Unterstützung bieten. Kohlenhydrate können in Monosaccharide, Disaccharide und Polysaccharide eingeteilt werden. Die Speicherung von Glukose in Form von Polymeren wie Stärke oder Glykogen macht sie für den Stoffwechsel etwas weniger zugänglich; Dies verhindert jedoch, dass es aus der Zelle austritt oder einen hohen osmotischen Druck erzeugt, der dazu führen könnte, dass die Zelle übermäßig viel Wasser aufnimmt. 

 Proteine sind eine Klasse von Makromolekülen, die vielfältige Funktionen für die Zelle erfüllen. Sie unterstützen den Stoffwechsel, indem sie als Enzyme, Träger oder Hormone fungieren und strukturelle Unterstützung bieten. Die Bausteine von Proteinen sind Aminosäuren. 

 Lipide sind eine Klasse von Makromolekülen, die von Natur aus unpolar und hydrophob sind. Zu den Haupttypen gehören Fette und Öle, Wachse, Phospholipide und Steroide. Fette sind eine gespeicherte Energieform und werden auch als Triacylglycerine oder Triglyceride bezeichnet. Cholesterin ist eine Art Steroid und ein wichtiger Bestandteil der Plasmamembran, wo es dazu beiträgt, die flüssige Beschaffenheit der Membran aufrechtzuerhalten. 

 Nukleinsäuren sind Moleküle, die aus Nukleotiden bestehen und zelluläre Aktivitäten wie Zellteilung und Proteinsynthese steuern. Es gibt zwei Arten von Nukleinsäuren: DNA und RNA. Die DNA trägt den genetischen Bauplan der Zelle und gibt ihn von den Eltern an die Nachkommen weiter. RNA ist an der Proteinsynthese und ihrer Regulierung beteiligt. 

 Anorganische Ionen 

 Anorganische Ionen machen weniger als 1 % der Zellmasse aus, sind jedoch für die Zellfunktion von entscheidender Bedeutung. Zu den in einer Zelle vorkommenden Substanzen gehören Natrium, Kalium, Magnesium, Kalzium, Phosphat und Chlorid. Dieser Text wurde angepasst von Openstax, Biology 2e, Unit 1: The Chemistry of Life.

Chemie der Zelle

Die Zelle besteht chemisch aus Wasser, organischen Molekülen und anorganischen Ionen.
Wasser
Die Polarität des Wassermoleküls und des daraus resultierenden Wasserstoffs ...

Education

Lehre

JoVE Core

Cell Biology

Zellbiologie

Unit 1

Einheit 1

Biochemistry of the Cell

Biochemie der Zelle

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

KERNBEGRIFFE UND KONZEPTE

cell chemistry: water, ions, and molecules

Cell chemistry explains the substances that make cells work. Water is the main component of cells, and it supports the chemical reactions that keep life going. Cells also contain organic molecules, which are carbon-based compounds, and inorganic ions, which are charged particles needed for cell function.

Organic molecules in cells include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. These molecules have different roles, but together they build cell structures, store energy, and carry genetic information. Inorganic ions also matter because they help cells maintain balance and support key processes.

A cell’s chemistry depends on how these substances interact. Water provides the setting for reactions, while organic molecules and inorganic ions give cells their form and function. Understanding cell chemistry helps explain how living cells stay organized and active.

Cell Chemistry: Water, Ions, and Molecules

the periodic table and organismal elements

the-periodic-table-and-organismal-elements

Elements in the Human Body and Periodic Table

Elements are the smallest units of matter that cannot be broken down further by chemical processes. Scientists know 118 elements, but not all of them occur naturally. Only a small number are essential for life, and living matter depends mostly on carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen. The periodic table organizes elements by their physical and chemical properties. Each square shows the element name, chemical symbol, atomic number, and atomic weight. The atomic number is the number of protons...

functional groups

Functional Groups in Organic Molecules

Functional groups are the part of an organic molecule that gives it specific chemical behavior. They help explain why compounds with similar carbon skeletons can react in different ways. In organic chemistry, these groups are often used to classify compounds. A functional group can change the properties of a molecule and affect how it behaves in a reaction. Knowing functional groups helps students recognize patterns in organic compounds. It also makes it easier to compare molecules that share...

types of chemical bonds

Chemical Bonds and How Atoms Join

Chemical bonds hold atoms together and help explain how different substances form. In chemistry, the main bond types are ionic bonds, covalent bonds, and metallic bonds. Ionic bonds form when electrons move from one atom to another. Covalent bonds form when atoms share electrons. Metallic bonds occur in metals, where electrons are held in a shared arrangement that gives metals their characteristic behavior. Understanding these bond types helps students compare how atoms connect in different...

noncovalent attractions in biomolecules

Biomolecule Interactions Without Covalent Bonds

Biomolecules often stay together through noncovalent attractions instead of covalent bonds. These weaker interactions help molecules recognize each other and form structures needed for life. The main noncovalent attractions are hydrogen bonds, electrostatic interactions, van der Waals forces, and hydrophobic interactions. Each one works in a different way, but all of them can influence how biomolecules fold, bind, and behave in cells. Hydrogen bonds form when a hydrogen atom is attracted to...

polymers

Polymer Chains and Their Properties

Polymers are large molecules made from repeating units called monomers. These long chains can form many common materials. Their structure helps explain why different polymers can behave in different ways. Polymers can be built in more than one way. Some form by addition polymerization, where monomers join together directly. Others form by condensation polymerization, which releases a small molecule as the chain grows. The type of polymer affects its properties and uses. Some polymers are...

what are lipids?

Lipids in Cells: Membranes, Energy, and Signals

Lipids are important cell molecules that act as membrane parts, energy stores, and signaling molecules. They are a diverse group of hydrocarbons, which are compounds made of carbon and hydrogen atoms. The carbon-carbon and carbon-hydrogen bonds are nonpolar, so lipids have an overall nonpolar character. Lipids are also hydrophobic, or “water-hating.” They do not form hydrogen bonds with water, so they are nearly insoluble in water. They are, however, soluble in organic solvents such as...

structure of lipids

How Lipid Molecules Are Built

Lipid molecules are built from hydrocarbon chains and a few key structural parts. Their shape helps explain why they behave differently from many other biological molecules. In high school biology, this structure is often linked to how lipids store energy and help form cell membranes. Some lipids are made from fatty acids joined to other small molecules. Triglycerides contain glycerol and three fatty acids, while phospholipids contain glycerol, two fatty acids, and a phosphate group. These...

chemistry of carbohydrates

Carbohydrate Structure and Bonding

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nucleic acids

DNA and RNA in Cells

DNA and RNA are nucleic acids that help store and use genetic information in cells. They are key molecules in biology and are often studied together because they work as a pair in living systems. Nucleic acids are built from repeating units called nucleotides. Each nucleotide has a sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. The order of these bases carries the genetic code. There are two main nucleic acids: DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, and RNA, or ribonucleic acid. DNA usually stores...

protein and protein structures

How Protein Shape Determines Function

Proteins are essential molecules in living things, and their shape affects how they work. Protein structure is described at several levels, including primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure. These levels help explain how a protein is built and how its final form supports its job. Primary structure is the sequence of amino acids in a protein. Secondary structure forms when parts of the chain fold into regular patterns. Tertiary structure is the overall three-dimensional shape of...

ph regulation in cells

Cell pH and Organelle Balance

Cell pH and organelle balance are essential for normal cell function. pH affects protein shape and activity, the charge on cell membranes, and many metabolic reactions inside the cell. Cells also use the proton motive force, which is the energy stored in a proton gradient, to make ATP, the cell’s main energy molecule. The cytosol, or fluid inside the cell, is usually slightly more acidic than the fluid outside the cell. Even so, cells must stop the cytosol from becoming too acidic. They use...

chemistry of the cell

Cell chemistry explains the substances that make cells work. Water is the main component of cells, and it supports the chemical reactions that keep life going. Cells also contain organic molecules, which are carbon-based compounds, and inorganic ions, which are charged particles needed for cell function. Organic molecules in cells include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. These molecules have different roles, but together they build cell structures, store energy, and carry...

key terms and concepts

Explore the chemistry of cells through water, organic molecules, and inorganic ions. Learn how these substances help cells function and stay organized.

Cell Chemistry: Water, Ions, and Molecules | JoVE K12

cell biology

JoVE Core Zellbiologie veranschaulicht komplexe zelluläre Prozesse in leicht verständlichen und dennoch umfassenden animierten Videolektionen. Diese Sammlung konzentriert sich auf die wesentlichen Bestandteile und Funktionen von Zellen, einschließlich Organellen und Membranen, Zelltransport und Zellenergie. Ergänzt wird sie durch Videos von Wissenschaftlern in Aktion, die die Anwendung der Zellbiologie in realen Forschungsexperimenten demonstrieren.

Virginia  Standards of Learning

HIgh School

BIO.2

BIO.2.b

BIO.6

BIO.6.a

Alabama Course of Study Science

From Molecules to Organisms: Structures and Processes

9-12.B.1.1

Compounds Essential to Human Function

The human body is composed of cells that are fundamentally made up of several different molecules. These molecules are essential to carry out all ...

Macromolecules

Biomolecules
Organisms contain a wide variety of organic molecules with numerous functions which depend on the chemical structures and properties of these ...

Solution Preparation
ExpandCAUTION: It is important to always use care when handling reagents. For example, iodine will stain clothes and skin so wear ...

Identifying Macromolecules with Indicator Solutions
ExpandHYPOTHESES: In this activity, the experimental hypothesis might be that the addition of an ...

pH Regulation in Cells

pH plays a critical role in maintaining normal cellular activities. It helps maintain the structure and function of various proteins, dictates the charge ...

Overview of Functional Groups

Functional groups are a group of atoms with characteristic properties, which when linked to the carbon skeleton of a molecule, alter the properties of ...

Introduction to Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are the primary macronutrients in the human diet. However, carbohydrates are the most favored source of energy in the ...

Carbohydrate Metabolism

Sugars as Energy Storage Molecules

What are Lipids?

lipid-derived-compounds-in-the-human-body

Lipid-derived Compounds in the Human Body

Fats and lipids are crucial components in the human body. Some lipid-derived compounds, such as fat-soluble vitamins, eicosanoids, lipoproteins, and ...

Fats as Energy Storage Molecules

What are Proteins?

Protein Organization

Globular Proteins

In organisms, proteins are the most abundant macromolecules. They act as the building blocks of life and play various crucial roles in the body. Proteins ...

Fibrous Proteins

Fibrous proteins are either long and narrow proteins or assemble to form long and thin structures. They contain repetitive units and usually consist of ...

Protein Denaturation

The function of proteins depends on their native three-dimensional structure, which is dictated by the amino acid sequence of the specific protein. ...

Role of Proteins in the Human Body

Proteins are the building block of life. They are also&#160; the most abundant macromolecules with as many diverse roles in the body. They are part of ...

Nucleic Acids and Nucleotides

Nucleic acids are the most important macromolecules for the continuity of life. They carry the cell&#39;s genetic blueprint and have instructions for its ...

Nucleic Acid Structure

The pentose sugar in DNA is deoxyribose, while in RNA the pentose sugar is ribose. The difference between the sugars is the presence of the hydroxyl group ...

ATP Energy Storage and Release

ATP and Macromolecule Synthesis

Biological macromolecules are organic compounds, predominantly composed of carbon atoms. The carbon atoms are covalently bonded with hydrogen, oxygen, ...

Construct an explanation to illustrate relationships between structure and function of major macromolecules essential for life.

Introduction to Enzymes

The use of enzymes by humans dates to 7000 BCE. Humans first used enzymes to ferment sugars and produce alcohol without knowing that this was an ...

Enzymes and Activation Energy

The activation energy (or free energy of activation), abbreviated as Ea, is the small amount of energy input necessary for all chemical reactions to ...

Introduction to Enzyme Kinetics

Enzyme kinetics studies the rates of biochemical reactions. Scientists monitor the reaction rates for a particular enzymatic reaction at various substrate ...

Turnover Number and Catalytic Efficiency

The turnover number of an enzyme is the maximum number of substrate molecules it can transform per unit time. Turnover numbers for most enzymes range from ...

Catalytically Perfect Enzymes

The theory of catalytically perfect enzymes was first proposed by W.J. Albery and J. R. Knowles in 1976. These enzymes catalyze biochemical reactions at ...

introduction-to-mechanisms-of-enzyme-catalysis

Introduction to Mechanisms of Enzyme Catalysis

For many years, scientists thought that enzyme-substrate binding took place in a simple &#34;lock-and-key&#34; fashion. This model stated that the enzyme ...

Ligand Binding and Linkage

Cooperative Allosteric Transitions

Ribozymes

Carry out investigations to illustrate how enzymes act as catalysts for biochemical reactions and how environmental factors affect enzyme activity.

LS.Bio.1.2

What are Cells?

Cells are the smallest and basic units of life, whether it is a single cell that forms the entire organism, e.g., in a bacterium or trillions of them, ...

Cell Size

Cell sizes vary widely among and within organisms. Bacterial cells range between 1-10 micrometers (&#x3BC;m)and are considerably smaller than most ...

Eukaryotic Compartmentalization

One of the distinguishing features of eukaryotic cells is that they contain membrane-bound organelles, such as the nucleus and mitochondria, that carry ...

Prokaryotic Cells

Prokaryotes are small unicellular organisms that include the domains&#x2014;Archaea and Bacteria. Bacteria include many common organisms, such as ...

Cytoplasm

The cytoplasm consists of organelles and a framework of protein scaffolds called the cytoskeleton suspended in an aqueous solution, the cytosol. The ...

The Nucleus

The nucleus is a membrane-bound organelle that acts as a control center in a eukaryotic cell. It contains chromosomal DNA, which controls gene expression ...

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Endoplasmic ReticulumThe endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an extensive network of membranous sacs and tubules in eukaryotic cells, continuous with the outer ...

Ribosomes

Ribosomes translate genetic information encoded by messenger RNA (mRNA) into proteins. Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have ribosomes. Cells that ...

Golgi Apparatus

As they leave the Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER), properly folded and assembled proteins are selectively packaged into vesicles. These vesicles are ...

Lysosomes

Lysosomes are membrane-enclosed spherical sacs derived from the Golgi apparatus. The most important function of the lysosome is degrading macromolecules ...

Peroxisomes

Peroxisomes and mitochondria are two important oxygen-utilizing organelles in eukaryotic cells. Mitochondria carry out cellular respiration&#x2014;the ...

Introduction to the Cytoskeleton

Overview of the Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton is a network of protein filaments present within the cell, having three distinct filaments ...

Introduction to Actin

Actin is a highly conserved cytoskeletal protein found abundantly in eukaryotic cells. It constitutes 10% weight of the total cellular protein in muscle ...

Cell Structure

Background
Cells represent the most basic biological units of all organisms, whether it be simple, single-celled organisms like bacteria, or large, ...

overview-of-myosin-structure-and-function

Overview of Myosin Structure and Function

Myosins are a family of molecular motor proteins, first identified in the skeletal muscles, where they are responsible for muscle contraction. Along with ...

Visualizing Onion and Cheek Cells
ExpandImmediately before the experiment, wash and peel onion bulbs for the class.
Remove the entire brown outer skin and ...

Microtubules

Microtubules are the thickest cytoskeletal filaments with a diameter of 25 nm. In prokaryotic organisms, microtubules are commonly found in locomotory ...

The Structure of Intermediate Filaments

The intermediate filaments are one of three widely studied cytoskeletal filaments. They are so named as their diameter (10 nm) is in between that of ...

Types of Intermediate Filaments

The intermediate filaments are an essential component of the cytoskeleton. Presently six types of intermediate filament have been identified. Type I and ...

Gap Junctions

Multicellular organisms employ a variety of ways for cells to communicate with each other. Gap junctions are specialized proteins that form pores between ...

The Extracellular Matrix

In order to maintain tissue organization, many animal cells are surrounded by structural molecules that make up the extracellular matrix (ECM). Together, ...

Tissues

Cells with similar structure and function are grouped into tissues. A group of tissues with a specialized function is called an organ. There are four main ...

Plant Cell Wall

The plant cell wall gives plant cells shape, support, and protection. As a cell matures, its cell wall specializes according to the cell type. For ...

Plasmodesmata

The organs in a multicellular organism&#x2019;s body are made up of tissues formed by cells. To work together cohesively, cells must communicate. One way ...

Use models to explain how the structure of organelles determines its function and supports overall cell processes.

LS.Bio.1.3

Cells are the smallest and basic units of life, whether it is a single cell that forms the entire organism, e.g., in a bacterium, or trillions of them, ...

the-tree-of-life-bacteria-archaea-and-eukaryotes

The Tree of Life - Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukaryotes

Prokaryotes are small unicellular organisms that include the domains &#8212; Archaea and Bacteria. Bacteria include many common microorganisms, such as ...

Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells

Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells represent two fundamental types of cellular organization, differing significantly in structure, complexity, and function. ...

Construct explanations to compare prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells in terms of structures and degree of complexity.

LS.Bio.1.4

The DNA Helix

Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, is the genetic material responsible for passing traits from generation to generation in all organisms and most viruses. DNA ...

The Central Dogma

The central dogma explains the flow of genetic information from DNA nucleotides to the amino acid sequence of proteins.
RNA is the Missing Link Between ...

What is Gene Expression?

A gene is a stretch of DNA that serves as the blueprint for functional RNAs and proteins. Since DNA is comprised&#160; of nucleotides and proteins are ...

RNA Structure

The basic structure of RNA consists of a string of ribonucleotides attached by phosphodiester bonds. Although most RNA is single-stranded, it can form ...

Types of RNA

Three main types of RNA are involved in protein synthesis: messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). These RNAs perform diverse ...

Construct an explanation to summarize how DNA and RNA direct the synthesis of proteins.

LS.Bio.1.5

Analyze how the relationship between structure and function supports life processes within organisms.

Cell Chemistry: Water, Ions, and Molecules

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