Name: cell cycle stages in mitosis
Uploaded: 2019-03-11T09:21:14.000Z
Duration: 2 min 3 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

north-carolina-k-12-science-standard-course-of-study

North Carolina K-12 Science Standard Course of Study

9-12

Biology

from-molecules-to-organisms-structures-and-processes

From Molecules to Organisms- Structures and Processes

LS.Bio.2.1

Mitosis and Cytokinesis

<p>חמישה שלבים ייחודיים, מיטוזה היא צורה של חלוקה שבו החומר הגנטי של התא מחולקת בין שני תאי בת. ראשית, במהלך הפרופאז בבני אדם, גרעיני הכרומטין לתוך כרומוזומים בצורת X המורכב מאחות זוג כרומטי מצורף גופיפים מרכזיים. במקביל, מחוץ לגרעין, שני אברונים בצורת L הנקראים גופיף מרכזי נודדים אל הצד השני של התא.</p><p>כפי שהם עושים זאת, מוטות חלבון מתחילות לגדול מכל אחד מהם, או לעבר התא פנים או חיצוני, ויוצרים מכשיר דמוי ציר. לאחר מכן, המעטפה הגרעינית מתמוססת במהלך ה-prometaphase חשיפת הכרומוזומים לתוכן האחר של התא. מבנים של החלבון מופיעים בשני הצדדים של הגופיפים המרכזיים, אחד עבור כל כרומטיד.</p><p>לאחר שהקינטוכורים מתאחדים, הארכת פנים של החלבון להדק להם עם כל אחות כרומטית שנקשרת אל עמוד תא אחר. מיטוזה ואז מטאפיס מתקדמת שבו מנגנון ציר מסדר מחדש את הכרומוזומים כך שהם דומים בשורה קבועה לאורך קו המשווה של התא. עם מערכת בקרת מחזור התא, קינטוצ'ור-מודבקת החלבון מתקצר, וכרומטידים אחים, עכשיו כל אחת בנפרד כמו כרומוזומים, נגררים זה מזה.</p><p>אלה וחלבונים דינמיים אחרים גם מאריכים את התא. לבסוף, הקרקע של הכרומוזומים בצד השני של התא במהלך הטלופז, ואז מתפרק מנגנון הצירים. החומר הגנטי משתחרר, ושתי מעטפות גרעיניות, אחד סביב כל קבוצת כרומוזום, מתעוררת.</p><p>במהלך הטלופז, בתהליך מובהק הנקרא ציטוקינים, התא מתחלק בציטופלזמה. לפיכך, התוצאה הסופית של המיטוזה היא זוג תאים זהים מבחינה גנטית לבשרם.</p>

<p>גרטין, דייוויד א., סוזן טראוטמן ודנל מקולום. "ציטוקינזיס באיקריוטים." <em>מיקרוביול. Mol. Biol. Rev.</em> 66, no. 2 (יוני 1, 2002): 155-78. [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1128/MMBR.66.2.155-178.2002" target="__blank">מקור</a>]</p>

מיטוזה וציטוקינזה

<div style="direction:rtl"><p>באאוקריוטים, מחזור חלוקת התא מחולק לתהליכים תאיים מובחנים ומתואמים הכוללים צמיחת תאים, שכפול DNA/כפול כרומוזומים, חלוקת כרומוזומים לתאי בת ולבסוף חלוקת תאים. מחזור התא מווסת היטב על ידי מערכות הוויסות שלו וכן אותות תאיים המשפיעים על התפשטות התא.</p> <p>התהליכים של מחזור התא מתרחשים על פני כ-24 שעות (בתאי אדם טיפוסיים) ובשני שלבים עיקריים הניתנים להבחנה. השלב הראשון הוא שכפול DNA, בשלב ה-S של האינטרפאזה. השלב השני הוא השלב המיטוטי (M), הכולל הפרדת הכרומוזומים המשוכפלים לשני גרעינים חדשים (מיטוזה) וחלוקה ציטופלזמית (ציטוקינזיה). שני השלבים מופרדים על ידי מרווחים (שלבים G<sub>1</sub> ו-G<sub>2</sub>), במהלכם התא מתכונן לשכפול וחלוקה.</p> <h4>תהליך המיטוזה</h4> <p>ניתן לחלק מיטוזה לחמישה שלבים נפרדים - פרופאזה, פרומטפאזה, מטאפאזה, אנפאזה וטלופזה. ציטוקינזיה, שמתחילה במהלך אנפאזה או טלופאז (תלוי בתא), היא חלק משלב M, אך לא חלק מהמיטוזה.</p> <h4>פרופאזה</h4> <p>כשהתא נכנס למיטוזה, הכרומוזומים המשוכפלים שלו מתחילים להתעבות ולהיראות כמבנים דמויי חוט בעזרת חלבונים המכונים condensins. מנגנון הציר המיטוטי מתחיל להיווצר בין הצנטרוזומים - שהוכפלו במהלך שלב S - ולנדוד לקטבים מנוגדים של התא. הציר מורכב ממבנים חוטיים הנקראים מיקרוטובולים המורכבים ממונומרים של חלבון טובולין. מיקרוטובולים בציר מתחילים להתרחב לעבר הכרומוזומים המעובה. הגרעין, מרכיב בגרעין המייצר ריבוזומים, נעלם, מה שמעיד על התמוטטותו הקרבה של הגרעין.</p> <h4>פרומטפאזה</h4> <p>במהלך הפרומטאפזה, חוטי המיקרוטובולים ממנגנון הציר ממשיכים לגדול, והכרומוזומים מסיימים להתעבות. המעטפת הגרעינית מתפרקת לחלוטין, ומשחררת את הכרומוזומים. חלק מהמיקרוטובולים נצמדים לכרומוזומים המשוחררים, ונקשרים למבנה חלבוני הנקרא קינטוכור הנמצא בצנטרומר של כל זוג כרומטידות אחיות. מיקרוטובולים בשם סיבי כישור שאינן נצמדים לכרומוזומים ומיקרוטובולים קוטביים ואסטרליים עוזרים לדחוף את הצירים זה מזה ולעגן את קטבי הציר לממברנת התא.</p> <h4>מטאפאזה</h4> <p>סיבי הכישור מיישרים כל זוג של הכרומטידות האחיות המעובות במלואן לאורך קו המשווה של התא - בלוח המטאפאזה. התא מוכן כעת להתחלק.</p> <h4>אנפאזה</h4> <p>בסיבי הכישור הקוטביים המנוגדים, המחוברים למבנה הקינטוכור, מקצרים ומפרידים בין הכרומטידות האחיות בצנטרומר. חלבוני הלכידות שמחזיקים את הכרומטידים יחד מתפרקים כעת. המיקרוטובולים בקינטוכור המתקצר גורמים לכל כרומטיד של הזוג - הנקרא כיום כרומוזומים - לנדוד לקוטב הפוך.</p> <h4>טלופאז</h4> <p>ברגע שהכרומוזומים מגיעים לקטבים מנוגדים של התא, הם מתעבים ומתפתלים ליצירת כרומטין. סיבי הכישור מתפרקים למונומרי הטובולין שלהם, אשר מנוצלים לאחר מכן כיסודות שלד התא בתאי בת. מעטפות גרעיניות מתכנסות מחדש סביב כל סט של כרומוזומים.</p> <h4>ציטוקינזיה</h4> <p>במהלך ציטוקינזיה בתאי בעלי חיים, סיבי אקטין יוצרים טבעת מתכווצת בממברנת הפלזמה כדי ליצור את 'חריץ התלמה', שבסופו של דבר צובט את התא לשניים. בתאי צמחים, שלפוחיות ממנגנון גולגי הנושאות גלוקוז, אנזימים וחלבונים מבניים מצטרפות ליצירת לוחית תא חדשה במיקום של לוחיות המטאפאזה הקודם. לוחיות התא הגדל מתמזגות עם ממברנות הפלזמה בכל צד, ובסופו של דבר יוצרת דופן תא חדש המחלק את התא לשניים.</p> <p>המיטוזה הושלמה כעת, ויוצרת שני תאי בת זהים לתא האב. ברוב התאים האנושיים, מיטוזה מהווה כשעה אחת ממחזור התא של כ-24 שעות.</p></div>

באיקריוטים, מחזור חלוקת התא מחולק לתהליכים תאיים מובחנים ומתואמים הכוללים גדילת תאים, שכפול DNA / כרומוזום ...

Education

JoVE Core

ביולוגיה

Cellular Processes

תהליכים תאיים

Cell Cycle and Division

מחזור התא והחלוקה

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

מונחים ומושגים מרכזיים

cell cycle stages in mitosis

<p class="jove_content">Cell cycle stages in mitosis show how a eukaryotic cell copies its DNA and then divides into two daughter cells. The cycle is controlled by regulatory systems and by outside signals that affect cell growth and division. In typical human cells, the full cycle takes about 24 hours and includes two major phases. The first is DNA replication during the S phase of interphase. The second is the mitotic, or M, phase, which includes mitosis and cytokinesis. G1 and G2 are the gap stages between these phases, and they give the cell time to prepare for replication and division.</p>

<p class="jove_content">Mitosis has five stages: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Cytokinesis may begin during anaphase or telophase, depending on the cell, and it is part of the M phase but not part of mitosis. As mitosis begins in prophase, the replicated chromosomes condense and become visible with the help of condensin proteins. The spindle apparatus starts to form between the duplicated centrosomes, which move to opposite poles. This spindle is made of microtubules, which are built from tubulin proteins, and the nucleolus disappears as the nucleus prepares to break down.</p>

<p class="jove_content">During prometaphase, the chromosomes finish condensing and the nuclear envelope breaks down. This releases the chromosomes into the cell. Some spindle microtubules attach to kinetochores, which are protein structures on the centromere of each pair of sister chromatids. Microtubules from opposite poles capture the sister chromatid pairs. Other microtubules, called polar and astral microtubules, help push the spindle poles apart and anchor them to the cell membrane.</p>

<p class="jove_content">In metaphase, the spindle microtubules line up each pair of fully condensed sister chromatids at the equator of the cell. This position is called the metaphase plate. The cell is then ready to divide. In anaphase, the kinetochore microtubules shorten and pull the sister chromatids apart at the centromere. The cohesion proteins that hold the chromatids together break down. Each chromatid is now a chromosome, and it moves toward an opposite pole.</p>

<p class="jove_content">In telophase, the chromosomes reach the poles and begin to decondense into chromatin. The spindle microtubules also depolymerize into tubulin monomers, which can be used again as cytoskeletal elements in the daughter cells. New nuclear envelopes form around each set of chromosomes. Cytokinesis then divides the cytoplasm. In animal cells, actin filaments form a contractile ring in the plasma membrane and create a cleavage furrow that pinches the cell in two. In plant cells, Golgi vesicles carrying glucose, enzymes, and structural proteins join to form a cell plate at the former metaphase plate. The cell plate fuses with the plasma membranes on both sides and develops into a new cell wall. Mitosis is complete, and the result is two daughter cells identical to the parent cell. In most human cells, mitosis takes about one hour of the 24-hour cell cycle.</p>

Cell Cycle Stages in Mitosis

what is the cell cycle?

Cell Cycle Checkpoints and Cancer

The cell cycle is the set of steps a eukaryotic cell follows as it grows and divides. In somatic cells, it has two main stages: interphase and the mitotic phase. During interphase, the cell grows, carries out its basic metabolic functions, copies its DNA, and gets ready for mitotic cell division.<br /><br />After interphase, the cell enters mitosis and cytokinesis. Mitosis divides the nuclear material, and cytokinesis divides the cytoplasm. These steps produce two daughter cells that are identical to the...

genomic dna in prokaryotes

Prokaryote Chromosomes and Plasmids

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binary fission

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genomic dna in eukaryotes

How Eukaryotic DNA Fits Inside the Nucleus

Eukaryotic DNA fits inside the nucleus by packing into a highly compact form. Eukaryotes have large genomes compared with prokaryotes, so their DNA must be tightly organized to fit inside one cell.<br /><br />The process starts when DNA wraps around proteins called histones. These DNA-histone units form nucleosomes, which are connected by linker DNA. The nucleosomes then coil into chromatin fibers, and additional fibrous proteins compact the chromatin even more.<br /><br />This packed material is called chromatin,...

interphase

Interphase in the Cell Growth Cycle

Interphase is the stage of the cell cycle when a eukaryotic cell grows and copies its DNA before mitosis. In a typical human cell, the full cell cycle takes about 24 hours, and interphase makes up about 95 percent of that time. It is followed by mitosis, also called M, when the cell divides.<br /><br />After mitosis and cytokinesis, cells enter the G1 phase, or gap 1. During G1, cells grow continuously and prepare for DNA replication. They are metabolically active and copy essential organelles and...

mitosis and cytokinesis

Cell cycle stages in mitosis show how a eukaryotic cell copies its DNA and then divides into two daughter cells. The cycle is controlled by regulatory systems and by outside signals that affect cell growth and division. In typical human cells, the full cycle takes about 24 hours and includes two major phases. The first is DNA replication during the S phase of interphase. The second is the mitotic, or M, phase, which includes mitosis and cytokinesis. G1 and G2 are the gap stages between these...

positive regulator molecules

Cyclins and CDKs in the Cell Cycle

Cyclins and CDKs help control the cell cycle, the process that produces daughter cells. Cells use internal checkpoints to make sure their size, energy reserves, and DNA are ready before they move forward. At these checkpoints, positive regulators help the cell continue, while negative regulators slow or stop it.<br /><br />The main positive regulators are cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases, or CDKs. These proteins are found in eukaryotes, from yeast to humans. Cyclins are grouped by the stage they help...

negative regulator molecules

Cell Cycle Stop Signals: p53, p21, and Rb

Cell cycle stop signals help control when a cell can move forward through division. Negative regulators pause or end the cell cycle until the cell meets the right conditions. Three well-studied negative regulators are p53, p21, and retinoblastoma protein, or Rb. Their roles became clear after faulty versions were found in cancer cells that kept replicating uncontrollably.<br /><br />These proteins act mostly at the G1 checkpoint, which comes early in the cell cycle. P53 has a strong effect on whether a...

cancer

Cancer Treatment, Personalization, and Cell Growth

Cancer develops when mutations affect genes that control cell division. Those changes can remove the normal brakes on growth and lead to uncontrolled cell proliferation. Modern science and medicine have improved how cancer is understood and treated, and some patients can now be cured.<br /><br />There is still no single cure for cancer because cancer is not one disease. It is a large group of many diseases. Even when two people have the same mutation in an oncogene or a tumor suppressor gene, their...

key terms and concepts

Learn how the cell cycle leads to mitosis and cytokinesis, from DNA replication and spindle formation to chromosome separation and cell division.

Cell Cycle Stages in Mitosis | JoVE K12

JoVE Core series brings biology to life through over 300 concise and easy-to-understand animated video lessons that explain key concepts in biology, plus more than 150 scientist-in-action videos that show actual research experiments conducted in today’s laboratories.

biology

Virginia  Standards of Learning

HIgh School

BIO.3

BIO.3.c

Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills

High School

BIO.6

BIO.6.A

new-york-state-science-learning-standards

New York State Science Learning Standards

Life Science

Inheritance and Variation of Traits

HS-LS1-4.

Georgia Standards of Excellence

SB1.b

Next Generation Science Standards

From Molecules to Organisms: Structures and Processes

HS-LS1-4

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Plant Cell Wall

The plant cell wall gives plant cells shape, support, and protection. As a cell matures, its cell wall specializes according to the cell type. For ...

Plasmodesmata

The organs in a multicellular organism&#x2019;s body are made up of tissues formed by cells. To work together cohesively, cells must communicate. One way ...

Use models to explain how the structure of organelles determines its function and supports overall cell processes.

LS.Bio.1.3

Cells are the smallest and basic units of life, whether it is a single cell that forms the entire organism, e.g., in a bacterium, or trillions of them, ...

the-tree-of-life-bacteria-archaea-and-eukaryotes

The Tree of Life - Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukaryotes

Prokaryotes are small unicellular organisms that include the domains &#8212; Archaea and Bacteria. Bacteria include many common microorganisms, such as ...

Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells

Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells represent two fundamental types of cellular organization, differing significantly in structure, complexity, and function. ...

Construct explanations to compare prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells in terms of structures and degree of complexity.

LS.Bio.1.4

The DNA Helix

Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, is the genetic material responsible for passing traits from generation to generation in all organisms and most viruses. DNA ...

The Central Dogma

The central dogma explains the flow of genetic information from DNA nucleotides to the amino acid sequence of proteins.
RNA is the Missing Link Between ...

What is Gene Expression?

A gene is a stretch of DNA that serves as the blueprint for functional RNAs and proteins. Since DNA is comprised&#160; of nucleotides and proteins are ...

RNA Structure

The basic structure of RNA consists of a string of ribonucleotides attached by phosphodiester bonds. Although most RNA is single-stranded, it can form ...

Types of RNA

Three main types of RNA are involved in protein synthesis: messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). These RNAs perform diverse ...

Construct an explanation to summarize how DNA and RNA direct the synthesis of proteins.

LS.Bio.1.5

Analyze how the relationship between structure and function supports life processes within organisms.

Cell Cycle Stages in Mitosis

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