Name: human skeleton: bones, cells, and disease
Uploaded: 2019-03-11T09:21:29.000Z
Duration: 1 min 2 s
Channel: JoVE

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From Molecules to Organisms: Structures and Processes

HS-LS1-2

What is the Skeletal System?

שלד האדם מורכב מעצמות שלא מתחברות יחד רק כדי לספק מסגרת נוקשה, המקנה צורה לגוף, אלא גם כדי לאפשר תנועה, מכיוון שהן מחוברות לשרירים באמצעות גידים. אחת מהמחלקות העיקריות, השלד הצירי, בנוי סביב הציר המרכזי של הגוף. אמנם יש לא מעט עצמות בחלק זה של הגוף העליון, לרבות עצמות השמע באוזן התיכונה, רובן מגנות על איברים חיוניים מפני נזקים.לדוגמה, הגולגולת מקיפה את המוח, ועמוד השדרה מקיף את חוט השדרה, במטרה להגן על מערכת העצבים המרכזית. איברים אחרים, כגון הלב והריאות, מוגנים על-ידי עצם החזה וכלוב הצלעות. המחלקה האחרת, השלד התוספי, מורכב מעצמות התומכות והמניעות את הגפיים, הידיים והזרועות, כמו גם הרגליים וכפות הרגליים, וחגורות הכתף והאגן.

קלינג, ג'וליאנה מ., בארט ל. קלארק וניקול פ. סנדהו. "מניעת אוסטאופורוזיס, הקרנה וטיפול: סקירה." כתב עת לבריאות האישה 23, מס '7 (1 ביולי 2014): 563–72. [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2013.4611" target="__blank">מקור</a>]

אכאווי, איברהים וחסן זמרלי. "אוסטאופורוזיס: מושגים עכשוויים". מפרקים 6, מס' 2 (14 ביוני 2018): 122–27. [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0038-1660790" target="__blank">Source</a>]

מהי מערכת השלד?

<div style="direction:rtl"><h4>סקירה כללית</h4> השלד האנושי הבוגר כולל 206 עצמות המחוברות באמצעות סחוס, גידים ורצועות. השלד מספק מסגרת נוקשה לגוף האדם, מגן על איברים פנימיים ומאפשר תנועה. מערכת השלד האנושי מורכבת מהשלדים הציריים והתוספי. רקמת העצם נבנית ללא הרף ונספגת על ידי תאי עצם מיוחדים החיוניים לבריאות הכללית. תאי עצם לא מווסתים ורמות לא נכונות של תרכובות כימיות בדם מובילות למחלות עצם. <h4>שלד צירי</h4> השלד הצירי מורכב מ-80 עצמות ומחולק לשלושה אזורים: הגולגולת, עמוד השדרה וכלוב הצלעות. החלק העליון של הגולגולת מורכב משמונה עצמות התוחמות את המוח, בעוד שהחלק התחתון מורכב מ-14 עצמות. עמוד השדרה מורכב מ-33 חוליות: שבע חוליות הצוואר , 12 בית החזה, חמש חוליות מותניות, חמש חוליות עצם העצם , וארבע חוליות עצם העוקץ. כלוב הצלעות מוסיף יציבות לעמוד השדרה וגם מגן על הריאות והלב. הוא מורכב מ-12 זוגות של צלעות, הנצמדות לחוליות החזה דרך מפרק costovertebral. החלק הקדמי של כלוב הצלעות נצמד לעצם החזה, העצם השטוחה במרכז החלק הקדמי של בית החזה, דרך הסחוסים. שבע הצלעות הראשונות בכל צד ידועות כצלעות אמיתיות, מכיוון שהסחוסים שלהן מתחברים ישירות לעצם החזה. צלעות שמונה עד 12 נקראות צלעות מזויפות מכיוון שהן אינן נצמדות ישירות לעצם החזה. עם זאת, צלעות שמונה עד 10 מצטרפות לעצם החזה דרך הסחוסים של הצלעות שמעל. לעומת זאת, צלעות 11 ו-12 מכונות צלעות צפות מכיוון שהן מחוברות רק לעמוד החוליה מאחור אך אין להן קשר כלל לעצם החזה. <h4>שלד תוספי</h4> מערכת השלד התוספי מורכבת מ-126 העצמות של הגפיים והחגורות כשהן נצמדות לשלד הצירי. מערכת השלד התוספי מורכבת מכמה סוגים שונים של עצמות. <h4>רקמות עצם ותאים</h4> עצם ידועה בשם רקמת עצם. תאי הרקמה העצמית מפוזרים במטריקס החומר המספק חוזק וקשיות לעצמות. המטריצה מורכבת ממרכיבים אורגניים בעיקר קולגן ורכיבים אנאורגניים המורכבים ממלחים מינרלים מגובשים כגון סידן פוספט, סידן הידרוקסיד ומגנזיום פלואוריד. ישנם שלושה סוגים עיקריים של תאי עצם אוסטאובלסטים, אוסטאוקלסטים ואוסטאוציטים. לאוסטאובלסטים ולאוסטאוקלסטים יש תפקידים הפוכים. אוסטאובלסטים בונים את מטריצת העצם, ואילו אוסטאוקלסטים סופגים אותה. שני התפקודים נמשכים לאורך החיים, ושניהם חיוניים לבריאות טובה. בניית עצם חשובה כדי לשמור על עצמות חזקות; ספיגת העצם מאפשרת שמירה על רמות הסידן בזרם הדם (החיוניות לבריאותם של איברים אחרים, כגון הלב). אוסטאוציטים הם תאים שהבשילו מאוסטאובלסטים וכעת הם מוקפים במטריצה. אוסטאוציטים מתקשרים עם הדם דרך תעלות מיקרוסקופיות בעצם, חשים את רמות הסידן ומינרלים אחרים בדם. לאחר מכן הם שולטים בתפקודי האוסטאובלסטים והאוסטאוקלסטים על ידי הפרשת חומרים המשפיעים על פעילות התאים הללו. <h4>מחלות עצם</h4> למחלות רבות של מערכת השלד יש תכונה משותפת: עצמות חלשות עקב תכולת מינרלים ירודה. אוסטאופורוזיס, למשל, מאופיינת בירידה בצפיפות המינרלים של העצם. מחלה זן מופיעה לרוב אצל נשים לאחר גיל המעבר, אך יכול להופיע גם אצל גברים ונשים לפני גיל המעבר. במחלה זו, יש יותר אוסטאוקלסט מאשר פעילות אוסטאובלסט. לחולים עם אוסטיאופורוזיס יש סיכון מוגבר מאוד לשברים, במיוחד בעמוד השדרה, הירך ובשורש כף היד. מחלת עצם נפוצה נוספת היא אוסטאודיסטרופיה כלייתית. מחלה זו היא חלק ממצב גדול יותר המכונה הפרעת מינרלים ועצמות במחלת כליות כרונית. הכליות ממלאות פונקציות רבות, כולל ויסות של סידן, זרחן וויטמין D, שכולם קריטיים לבריאות העצם. כאשר הכליות אינן מתפקדות כראוי, כמו במחלת כליות סוכרתית, העצמות עלולות להיחלש ולכאוב, והמפרקים עלולים לכאוב גם כן.</div>

סקירה

השלד האנושי הבוגר כולל 206 עצמות המחוברות באמצעות סחוס, גידים ורצועות. השלד מספק ...

Education

JoVE Core

Biology

ביולוגיה

Human Biology

ביולוגיה אנושית

Musculoskeletal System

מערכת השלד והשרירים

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

מונחים ומושגים מרכזיים

human skeleton: bones, cells, and disease

The human skeleton is a living framework made of 206 bones in adults. Bones connect with cartilage, tendons, and ligaments. This system gives the body support, protects organs, and helps with movement and locomotion.

The skeleton has two main parts: the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton has 80 bones and includes the skull, the vertebral column, and the rib cage. The cranium, or upper skull, has eight bones that enclose the brain, while the lower part of the skull has 14 bones. The vertebral column has 33 vertebrae. These include seven cervical, 12 thoracic, five lumbar, five fused sacral, and four fused coccygeal vertebrae.

The rib cage adds stability to the vertebral column and protects the lungs and heart. It has 12 pairs of ribs that attach to the thoracic vertebrae at the costovertebral joint. The front of the rib cage connects to the sternum, the flat bone in the center of the chest, through costal cartilages. The first seven ribs are true ribs because their cartilages attach directly to the sternum. Ribs eight through 12 are false ribs. Ribs eight through 10 connect to the sternum through the cartilages of the ribs above them, while ribs 11 and 12 are floating ribs because they do not connect to the sternum at all.

The appendicular skeleton has 126 bones. It includes the bones of the limbs and the girdles that attach them to the axial skeleton. Bone tissue is also called osseous tissue. Its cells sit in a matrix, which is the material that gives bone strength and hardness. The matrix contains organic material, mainly collagen, and inorganic mineral salts such as calcium phosphate, calcium hydroxide, and magnesium fluoride.

Bone cells have different jobs. Osteoblasts build bone matrix, while osteoclasts break it down. Both actions continue throughout life and are important for health. Building bone helps keep bones strong. Breaking down bone helps maintain calcium levels in the bloodstream, which is important for organs such as the heart. Osteocytes are mature bone cells that come from osteoblasts. They sit inside the matrix and communicate with the blood through tiny channels in bone. They sense calcium and other mineral levels and help control osteoblast and osteoclast activity by releasing substances that affect these cells.

Problems in bone cell balance or mineral levels can lead to bone disease. Osteoporosis is a common example. It is marked by low bone mineral density and more osteoclast activity than osteoblast activity. It occurs most often in postmenopausal women, but it can also occur in men and premenopausal women. People with osteoporosis have a much higher risk of fractures, especially in the spine, hip, and wrist.

Renal osteodystrophy is another widespread bone disease. It is part of mineral and bone disorder in chronic kidney disease. The kidneys help regulate calcium, phosphorus, and vitamin D, and these are all needed for bone health. When the kidneys do not work properly, such as in diabetic kidney disease, bones may become weak and painful, and the joints may hurt as well.

Human Skeleton: Bones, Cells, and Disease

what is the skeletal system?

The human skeleton is a living framework made of 206 bones in adults. Bones connect with cartilage, tendons, and ligaments. This system gives the body support, protects organs, and helps with movement and locomotion. The skeleton has two main parts: the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton has 80 bones and includes the skull, the vertebral column, and the rib cage. The cranium, or upper skull, has eight bones that enclose the brain, while the lower part of the skull...

bone structure

Inside a Long Bone

Inside a long bone, osseous tissue is organized into two main types: cortical bone and cancellous bone. A femur is a clear example of this structure. The bone also includes outer coverings and inner spaces that support growth, repair, and blood cell production. Cortical bone, also called compact bone, forms the dense outer layer along the diaphysis, or shaft. It is covered by the periosteum, a membrane with connective tissue, capillaries, and nerves. Beneath the cortical layer is the medullary...

joints

Types of Joints in the Human Body

Joints are the places where adjacent bones connect. They are also called articulations or articular surfaces. Joints help the body move and stay stable. Joints can be classified by structure or by function. Structural classification depends on the material that forms the joint and whether there is a space between the bones. By structure, joints are fibrous, cartilaginous, or synovial. Fibrous joints are connected by fibrous tissue and have no cavity between the bones. Because of this, they do...

bone remodeling

How Hormones Control Bone Turnover

Bone turnover is a continuous process in which old bone is broken down and new bone is built. Osteoclasts carry out bone resorption, and osteoblasts carry out bone formation. In adults, this balanced cycle helps maintain bone mass and calcium homeostasis. Mechanical stress can also stimulate turnover as part of normal maintenance and repair. Parathyroid hormone, or PTH, helps control blood calcium levels by increasing bone resorption when calcium is low. It is released from the parathyroid...

skeletal muscle anatomy

Muscle Fibers, Tendons, and Contraction

Skeletal muscle moves the body by pulling on bones through tendons. Tendons are the connective tissue that attaches skeletal muscle to bones. When skeletal muscles contract, they create voluntary movement. Skeletal muscle is wrapped in layers of connective tissue. The outer layer is the epimysium, which helps protect the muscle. Beneath it, the perimysium surrounds and groups fasciculi, which are bundles of skeletal muscle cells called myocytes. These cells are also called skeletal muscle...

classification of skeletal muscle fibers

Skeletal Muscle Fiber Speed and Energy

Skeletal muscle fibers can be grouped by how fast they contract and how they make ATP, the energy cells use for movement. These differences also shape their physical features. Most human muscles contain all three fiber types, but in different amounts. Slow oxidative fibers, also called slow-twitch fibers, appear red because they have many capillaries and high levels of myoglobin, an oxygen-storing protein. They also contain more mitochondria, which make ATP through oxidative phosphorylation,...

muscle contraction

Nerve Signals That Trigger Muscle Contraction

Nerve signals trigger muscle contraction in both skeletal and smooth muscle, but the two muscle types use different control systems. In skeletal muscle, the signal begins at the motor end plate, which is the synapse between a motor neuron and a muscle fiber. In smooth muscle, contraction is controlled by the autonomic nervous system and happens without conscious control. In skeletal muscle, motor nerve terminals release acetylcholine. This neurotransmitter binds to receptors on the sarcolemma,...

cross-bridge cycle

Calcium Control in Muscle Contraction

Calcium control in muscle contraction depends on ATP, motor neurons, and the sliding action of actin and myosin. As a muscle contracts, the thin and thick filaments overlap more, and the sarcomere, which is the contractile unit of the muscle, becomes shorter. This process uses energy from ATP and happens in a repeating cycle at the molecular level. Myosin drives the movement of actin through a cross-bridge cycle. When ATP attached to the myosin head is hydrolyzed to ADP, myosin shifts into a...

motor units

How Motor Units Control Muscle Movement

Motor units control skeletal muscle movement. A motor unit includes one efferent motor neuron, which carries signals away from the central nervous system, and all of the muscle fibers it innervates. A single motor neuron can connect with multiple muscle fibers, but each muscle fiber is innervated by only one motor neuron. Lower motor neurons are the efferent neurons that control skeletal muscle, the most abundant type of muscle in the body. Their cell bodies are found in the spinal cord or...

the spinal cord

Spinal Cord Structure and Dermatomes

The spinal cord is the main nerve pathway of the central nervous system. It carries sensory signals from the body to the brain and motor signals from the brain to the body. It begins at the foramen magnum, the opening at the base of the skull, and extends to the level of the first or second lumbar vertebra. In cross-section, the spinal cord is cylindrical and contains both gray matter and white matter. The central canal lies in the middle and is a remnant of the lumen of the primitive neural...

nociception

Pain Signaling and Inflammation

Pain signaling begins when the body detects a harmful stimulus. Sharp objects, open flames, and corrosive chemicals can trigger this response. Sensory receptors called nociceptors, which sit on nerve endings, detect these noxious stimuli and use ion channels to turn them into electrical signals. Those electrical signals travel through sensory neurons to the brain, where they are experienced as pain. This warning system helps an organism avoid damage and stay safe. Pain is therefore an...

key terms and concepts

Explore the human skeleton, including axial and appendicular bones, bone cells, and common bone diseases like osteoporosis and renal osteodystrophy.

Human Skeleton: Bones, Cells, and Disease | JoVE K12

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Structure and Function

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Characteristics of Life

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Construct an explanation based on evidence for how the structure of DNA determines the structure of proteins, which carry out the essential functions of life through systems of specialized cells. [Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include identification of specific cell or tissue types, whole body systems, specific protein structures and functions, or the biochemistry of protein synthesis.]

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Overview

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Overview

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Oogenesis

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Fertilization

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Overview

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Homeostasis
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The immune system comprises diverse biological structures and processes that protect the body from disease. These processes can be classified ...

Bone Remodeling

Bone remodeling is a continuous and balanced process of bone resorption by osteoclasts and bone formation by osteoblasts. In adults, it helps maintain ...

Spermatogenesis

Spermatogenesis is the process by which haploid sperm cells are produced in the male testes. It starts with stem cells located close to the outer rim of ...

Bone Structure

Within the skeletal system, the structure of a bone, or osseous tissue, can be exemplified in a long bone, like the femur, where there are two types of ...

Breathing

The process of breathing, inhaling and exhaling, involves the coordinated movement of the chest wall, the lungs, and the muscles that move them. Two ...

Develop and use a model to illustrate the hierarchical organization of interacting systems that provide specific functions within multicellular organisms. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on functions at the organism system level such as nutrient uptake, water delivery, and organism movement in response to neural stimuli. An example of an interacting system could be an artery depending on the proper function of elastic tissue and smooth muscle to regulate and deliver the proper amount of blood within the circulatory system.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include interactions and functions at the molecular or chemical reaction level.]

What is Homeostasis?

Maintaining homeostasis requires that the body continuously maintain its internal conditions. Each physiological condition has a particular set point, ...

Negative and Positive Feedback

Homeostatic Imbalance

Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment within the body, which is crucial for the proper functioning of cells, tissues, organs, ...

Plan and conduct an investigation to provide evidence that feedback mechanisms maintain homeostasis. [Clarification Statement: Examples of investigations could include heart rate response to exercise, stomate response to moisture and temperature, and root development in response to water levels.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include the cellular processes involved in the feedback mechanism.]

HS-LS1-3

Human Skeleton: Bones, Cells, and Disease

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