Name: measurement: si units and conversions
Uploaded: 2020-09-03T13:38:25.000Z
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K12 Standards

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Ohio’s Learning Standards and Model Curriculum

9-12

Chemistry

Structure And Properties Of Matter

Quantifying matter

Measurement: Standard Units

במדע, מדידה היא ייחוס של ערך מספרי למאפיין כמו מסה, גודל או טמפרטורה של חומר. כל מדידה מספקת שני סוגי מידע. הראשון הוא המספר, הגודל או הכמות של מהמדידה.השני הוא הוא יחידת המידה תקן ההשוואה למדידה. כך, כשמים רותחים ב-100 מעלות צלזיוס, המספר 100 מייצג את הכמות המדידה, ומעלות צלזיוס מייצגת את יחידת המידה. יחד הן מסמלות את הגודל היחסי של התכונה בחומר הנבחן נקודת הרתיחה.בלי יחידה, המספר יהיה חסר משמעות או מבלבל. לדוגמה, אם הגובה של מגדל אייפל ידווח כ-300, ללא יחידת המידה, ההקשר של המספר 300 לא יהיה ברור. זה אומר שמגדל אייפל עשוי להיות גבוה יחסית, או נמוך יחסית…אך ללא יחידות מידה להשוואה, קשה להעריך.לעיתים צורת מידע שלישית, שגיאת מדידה מסופקת גם. נתון זה הוא סימן לחוסר הודאות הקיים למדידה. לכן, כדי למדוד ולתעד את התכונות השונות של חומרים באופן מדויק, פותחו מערכות מדידה מוסכמות.מערכת היחידות הבינלאומית, SI, משמשת מדענים בכל העולם. במערכת SI הוגדרו יחידות מידה לשבע תכונות בסיסיות:אורך, מסה, זמן, טמפרטורה, זרם חשמלי, כמות החומר ועוצמת ההארה. תכונות אלה נקראות יחידות הבסיס.מתוכן, יחידות הבסיס של ארבע התכונות הראשונות הן הנפוצות ביותר בכימיה. יחידת הבסיס לאורך במערכת הSI היא מטר, המיוצג בסימן m‪מרחקים גדולים יותר נרשמים לרוב בקילומטרים, או ק"מ, כשקילומטר אחד שווה לאלף מטרים. לעומת זאת, מרחקים קצרים יותר ניתן לרשום בסנטימטרים, או ס"מ, כשסנטימטר אחד שווה ל-0.01 מטרים.או במילימטרטרים, מ"מ, כאשר מילימטר אחד שווה ל-0.001 מטרים. בדומה לכך, יחידת הבסיס למסה במערכת SI היא קילוגרם, אשר מיוצגת בסימן kg‪קילוגרם שווה לאלף גרם. טמפרטורה היא תכונה בסיסית נוספת, הנמדדת ביחידת הSI קלווין ומיוצגת על ידי האות הגדולה K‪ערך זה נרשם ללא המילה מעלות"או הסימן המקובל למעלות, כדי להבדילו מיחידות צלזיוס ופארנהייט.לדוגמה, מים רותחים ב-373.15K, והטמפרטורה התקינה של גוף האדם היא 310K בקירוב. יחידת הבסיס הרביעית השכיחה לשימוש היא שנייה, יחידת הזמן של SI, המיוצגת על ידי האות s‪בעוד שפרקי זמן קצרים נרשמים במילי-שניות, כשמילי-שנייה אחת שווה ל-0.001 שניות, פרקי זמן ארוכים יותר נרשמים במגה-שניות, כשמגה-שנייה אחת שווה למיליון שניות. לחלופין, גם ביחידות שאינן חלק ממערכת SI, כמו שעות, ימים ושנים נעשה שימוש.

מדידה: יחידות סטנדרטיות

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 כל מדידה מספקת שלושה סוגים של מידע: גודל או גודל המדידה (מספר), תקן ההשוואה למדידה (יחידה), ואינדיקציה לאי הוודאות של המדידה. בעוד שהמספר והיחידה מיוצגים במפורש כאשר הכמות נכתבת, אי הוודאות היא היבט של השגיאות בתוצאות המדידה. 

 ניתן לייצג את המספר במדידה בדרכים שונות, כולל צורה עשרונית וסימון מדעי, הידוע גם בתור סימון אקספוננציאלי. לדוגמה, משקל ההמראה המרבי של מטוס בואינג 777-200ER הוא 298,000 ק"ג, שניתן לכתוב גם כ-2.98 × 105 ק"ג. 

 יחידות, כגון ליטר, פאונד וסנטימטר, הן הסטנדרטים להשוואה למדידות. בקבוק משקה קל בנפח 2 ליטר מכיל נפח משקה פי שניים מהנפח המקובל של 1 ליטר. ללא יחידות, מספר יכול להיות חסר משמעות, מבלבל או עלול להיות מסכן חיים. נניח שרופא רושם פנוברביטל כדי לשלוט בהתקפים של המטופל ומציין מינון של "100" ללא ציון יחידות. לא רק שזה יבלבל את איש המקצוע הרפואי שנותן את המינון, אלא שההשלכות עלולות להיות קשות: 100 מ"ג שניתנים שלוש פעמים ביום יכול להיות יעיל כנוגד פרכוסים, אבל מנה בודדת של 100 גרם היא פי 10 יותר מהכמות הקטלנית. . 

 <h4>מערכת היחידות הבינלאומית (SI Units)</h4> 
 יחידות המדידה לשבע מאפיינים בסיסיים ("יחידות בסיס"): אורך, מסה, זמן, טמפרטורה, זרם חשמלי, כמות החומר ועוצמת האור, נקבעו בהסכמה בינלאומית. הם נקראים מערכת היחידות הבינלאומית או יחידות SI. ניתן להפיק יחידות עבור נכסים אחרים משבע יחידות הבסיס הללו. יחידות מדידה יומיומיות מוגדרות לרוב כשברים או כפולות של יחידות אחרות. חלב נארז בדרך כלל במיכלים של 1 ליטר (4 ליטר), 1 ליטר (0.25 ליטר) וליטר אחד (0.5 ליטר). באותה גישה משתמשים ביחידות SI, אבל השברים או הכפולות האלה הם תמיד חזקות של 10. שבר או יחידות SI מרובות נקראות באמצעות קידומת והשם של יחידת הבסיס. לדוגמה, אורך של 1000 מטר נקרא גם קילומטר מכיוון שהקידומת קילו פירושה "אלף", שבסימון מדעי הוא 103 (1 קילומטר = 1000). (מ' = 103 מ'). 

 <h4>יחידות SI סטנדרטיות</h4> 
 היחידות הראשוניות של המערכת המטרית, שבסופו של דבר התפתחו למערכת SI, הוקמו בצרפת במהלך המהפכה הצרפתית. התקנים המקוריים למטר ולקילוגרם אומצו שם בשנת 1799 ובסופו של דבר על ידי מדינות אחרות. להלן ארבע יחידות הבסיס SI הנפוצות בשימוש בכימיה. 

 <h4>1. אורך</h4> 
 יחידת האורך הסטנדרטית במערכת SI היא המטר (m). מטר מוגדר כמרחק שאור עובר בוואקום ב-1/299,792,458 של שנייה. מרחקים ארוכים יותר מדווחים לרוב בקילומטרים (1 ק"מ = 1000 מ' = 103 מ'), ואילו מרחקים קצרים יותר ניתן לדווח בסנטימטרים (1 ס"מ = 0.01 מ' = 10-2 מ') או מילימטרים (1 מ"מ = 0.001 מ' = 10-3 M). 

 <h4>2. מסה</h4> 
 יחידת המסה הסטנדרטית במערכת SI היא הקילוגרם (ק"ג). קילוגרם מוגדר על ידי המסה של אובייקט ייחוס - גליל מתכת העשוי מסגסוגת פלטינה אירידיום בגובה ובקוטר של 39 מ"מ. על כל אובייקט בעל מסה זהה להתייחסות זו נאמר שיש לו מסה של 1 קילוגרם. הגרם (g) שווה בדיוק ל-1/1000 ממסת הקילוגרם (10–3 ק"ג).

 המונח "משקל" משמש לעתים קרובות לסירוגין עם "מסה". עם זאת, שתי הכמויות שונות. בעוד המסה של האובייקט מודדת את כמות החומר שבתוכו, משקלו מודד את כוח הכבידה המופעל על החומר שלו. לדוגמה, אם היינו יכולים לשקול את עצמנו על הירח, שיש לו כוח משיכה חלש יותר מכדור הארץ, היינו שוקלים פחות ממה ששקלנו על כדור הארץ. עם זאת, המסה - כמות החומר בגופנו - תישאר זהה. 

 <h4>3. טמפרטורה</h4> 
 יחידת הטמפרטורה SI היא הקלווין (K), אם כי המעלות צלזיוס (°C) מותרת גם במערכת SI, כאשר גם המילה "מעלה" וגם סמל המעלה משמשים למדידות צלזיוס. מעלות צלזיוס זהות לאלו של קלווין, אבל שני הסולמות ממקמים את האפסים שלהם במקומות שונים. מים קופאים ב-273.15 K (0 מעלות צלזיוס) ורותחים ב-373.15 K (100 מעלות צלזיוס) בהגדרה, וטמפרטורת גוף האדם הרגילה היא כ-310 K (37 מעלות צלזיוס). סולם פרנהייט (°F) הוא עוד יחידה נפוצה למדידת טמפרטורה. בסולם פרנהייט, מים קופאים ב-32 מעלות פרנהייט ורותחים ב-212 מעלות פרנהייט, וטמפרטורת גוף האדם הרגילה היא 96 מעלות פרנהייט. 

 בעוד שסולמות פרנהייט וצלזיוס מאפשרים טמפרטורות שליליות, סולם קלווין, הנקרא גם סולם מוחלט, אינו מאפשר זאת. בסולם קלווין, 0 K היא הטמפרטורה הנמוכה ביותר, הידועה כאפס מוחלט. 

 מאזני הטמפרטורה ניתנים להמרה הדדית באמצעות נוסחאות ההמרה הבאות: 
 <img alt="Eq1" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1010/1010_Equations-01.png" style="height: 40px;"> 
 <img alt="Eq2" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1010/1010_Equations-02.png" style="height: 40px;"> 

 <h4>4. זמן</h4> 
 יחידת הזמן הבסיסית SI היא השניה(s). ניתן לבטא מרווחי זמן קטנים וגדולים עם הקידומות המתאימות. לדוגמה: 
 <img alt="Eq3" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1010/1010_Equations-03.png" style="height: 40px;"> 
 <img alt="Eq4" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1010/1010_Equations-04.png" style="height: 40px;"> 

 לחלופין, ניתן להשתמש בשעות, ימים ושנים. 

 טקסט זה מותאם מ <a href="https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/1-4-measurements">Openstax, Chemistry 2e, Section 1.4: Measurements.</a></div>

כל מדידה מספקת שלושה סוגי מידע: גודל או גודל המדידה (מספר), סטנדרט השוואה למדידה...

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Introduction: Matter and Measurement

מבוא: חומר ומדידה

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

מונחים ומושגים מרכזיים

measurement: si units and conversions

Measurement gives three kinds of information: a number, a unit, and an estimate of uncertainty. The number shows size or magnitude. The unit gives a standard for comparison. The uncertainty reflects possible error in the measurement.

Numbers can be written in more than one way. A value may appear in decimal form or in scientific notation, which is also called exponential notation. For example, the maximum take-off weight of a Boeing 777-200ER airliner is 298,000 kilograms, or 2.98 × 10^5 kg.

Units are essential because they make a number meaningful. Common units such as liters, pounds, and centimeters help people compare measurements. A 2-liter bottle of soft drink contains twice the volume of a 1-liter bottle. Without units, a number can be confusing or even dangerous. A doctor who writes a dose as “100” without units could create a serious mistake, because 100 mg taken three times a day can be effective, while 100 g is more than 10 times the lethal amount.

The International System of Units, or SI units, is based on seven fundamental properties called base units. These properties are length, mass, time, temperature, electric current, amount of substance, and luminous intensity. Other units are derived from these base units. Everyday units often use fractions or multiples of a base unit, and SI units do the same with powers of 10. Prefixes show these multiples. For example, kilo means one thousand, so 1 kilometer equals 1000 meters, or 10^3 m.

The metric system began in France during the French Revolution. The original standards for the meter and kilogram were adopted in 1799 and later used by other countries. In chemistry, the four SI base units used most often are length, mass, temperature, and time.

The SI unit of length is the meter, or m. A meter is defined as the distance light travels in a vacuum in 1/299,792,458 of a second. Longer distances are often given in kilometers, while shorter distances are often given in centimeters or millimeters. These units relate directly to the meter: 1 km = 1000 m = 10^3 m, 1 cm = 0.01 m = 10^-2 m, and 1 mm = 0.001 m = 10^-3 m.

The SI unit of mass is the kilogram, or kg. It is defined by a reference object, a metal cylinder made from platinum-iridium alloy with a height and diameter of 39 mm. Any object with the same mass as that reference has a mass of 1 kilogram. The gram, or g, is exactly 1/1000 of a kilogram, which is 10^-3 kg. Weight is often used like mass, but they are not the same. Mass is the amount of matter in an object, while weight is the gravitational force on that matter. That is why a person would weigh less on the moon, where gravity is weaker, but the mass would stay the same.

The SI unit of temperature is the kelvin, or K, although degree Celsius, or °C, is also allowed in SI. Celsius and kelvin have the same size unit, but their zero points are different. Water freezes at 273.15 K, which is 0 °C, and boils at 373.15 K, which is 100 °C. Normal human body temperature is about 310 K, or 37 °C. Fahrenheit, or °F, is another common scale. On that scale, water freezes at 32 °F and boils at 212 °F, and normal body temperature is 96 °F. Celsius and Fahrenheit can show negative temperatures, but Kelvin cannot. The Kelvin scale starts at 0 K, called absolute zero. Temperature scales can be converted using the given formulas.

The SI base unit of time is the second, or s. Small and large time intervals can be written with prefixes, and hours, days, and years are also used. Together, these units help scientists and students describe measurements clearly and compare results with confidence.

Measurement: SI Units and Conversions

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Measurement gives three kinds of information: a number, a unit, and an estimate of uncertainty. The number shows size or magnitude. The unit gives a standard for comparison. The uncertainty reflects possible error in the measurement. Numbers can be written in more than one way. A value may appear in decimal form or in scientific notation, which is also called exponential notation. For example, the maximum take-off weight of a Boeing 777-200ER airliner is 298,000 kilograms, or 2.98 × 10^5 kg. <br...

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The Quantum-Mechanical Model of an Atom

Shortly after de Broglie published his ideas that the electron in a hydrogen atom could be better thought of as being a circular standing wave instead of ...

Subatomic Particles

Dalton was only partially correct about the particles that make up matter. All matter is composed of atoms, and atoms are composed of three smaller ...

Quantum Numbers

It is said that the energy of an electron in an atom is quantized; that is, it can be equal only to certain specific values and can jump from one energy ...

Atomic Orbitals

An atomic orbital represents the three-dimensional regions in an atom where an electron has the highest probability to reside. The radial distribution ...

The Pauli Exclusion Principle

The arrangement of electrons in the orbitals of an atom is called its electron configuration. We describe an electron configuration with a symbol that ...

The Energies of Atomic Orbitals

In an atom, the negatively charged electrons are attracted to the positively charged nucleus. In a multielectron atom, electron-electron repulsions are ...

The Aufbau Principle and Hund's Rule

To determine the electron configuration for any particular atom, we can build the structures in the order of atomic numbers. Beginning with hydrogen, and ...

electron-configuration-of-multielectron-atoms

Electron Configuration of Multielectron Atoms

The alkali metal sodium (atomic number 11) has one more electron than the neon atom. This electron must go into the lowest-energy subshell available, the ...

Thomson's e/m Experiment

In a beam of charged particles created by a heated cathode, the particles move at different speeds. However, many applications need a beam with uniform ...

Atomic structure
• Evolution of atomic models/theory
• Electrons
• Electron configurations

Content elaboration: Physical Science included properties and locations of protons, neutrons and electrons, atomic number, mass number, cations and anions, isotopes and the strong nuclear force which holds the nucleus together. In this course, the historical development of the atomic model and the positions of electrons are explored in greater detail. Atomic models are constructed to explain experimental evidence and make predictions. The changes in the atomic model over time exemplify how scientific knowledge changes as new evidence emerges and how technological advancements like electricity extend the boundaries of scientific knowledge. Thompson's study of electrical discharges in cathode-ray tubes led to the discovery of the electron and the development of the plum pudding model of the atom. Rutherford's experiment, in which he bombarded gold foil with a-particles, led to the discovery that most of the atom consists of empty space with a relatively small, positively charged nucleus. Bohr used data from atomic spectra to propose a planetary model of the atom in which electrons orbit the nucleus, like planets around the sun. Later, Schrödinger used the idea that electrons travel in waves to develop a model in which electrons travel randomly in regions of space called orbitals (quantum mechanical model). Based on the quantum mechanical model, it is not possible to predict exactly where electrons are located but there is a region of space surrounding the nucleus in which there is a high probability of finding an electron (electron cloud or orbital). Data from atomic spectra (emission and absorption) gives evidence that electrons can only exist at certain discrete energy levels and not at energies between these levels. Atoms are usually in the ground state where the electrons occupy orbitals with the lowest available energy. However, the atom can become excited when the electrons absorb a photon with the precise amount of energy (indicated by the frequency of the photon) to move to an orbital with higher energy. Any photon without this precise amount of energy will be ignored by the electron. The atom exists in the excited state for a very short amount of time. When an electron drops back down to the lower energy level, it emits a photon that has energy equal to the energy difference between the levels. The amount of energy is indicated by the frequency of the light that is given off and can be measured. Each element has a unique emission and absorption spectrum due to its unique electron configuration and specific electron energy jumps that are possible for that element. Being aware of the quantum mechanical model as the currently accepted model for the atom is important for science literacy as it explains and predicts subatomic interactions, but details should be reserved for more advanced study. Electron energy levels consist of sublevels (s, p, d and f), each with a characteristic number and shape of orbitals. Orbital diagrams and electron configuration can be constructed to show the location of the electrons in an atom using established rules. Valence electrons are responsible for most of the chemical properties of elements. In this course, electron configuration (extended and noble gas notation) and orbital diagrams can be shown for any element in the first three periods. Although the quantum mechanical model of the atom explains the most experimental evidence, other models can still be helpful. Thinking of atoms as indivisible spheres is useful in explaining many physical properties of substances, such as the state (solid, liquid or gas) of a substance at room temperature. Bohr's planetary model is useful to explain and predict periodic trends in the properties of elements.

Atomic structure

The Periodic Table

As early chemists discovered more elements, they realized that various elements could be grouped by their similar chemical behaviors. One such grouping ...

Periodic Classification of the Elements

The periodic table arranges atoms based on increasing atomic number so that elements with the same chemical properties recur periodically. When their ...

atomic-radii-and-effective-nuclear-charge

Atomic Radii and Effective Nuclear Charge

The elements in groups of the periodic table exhibit similar chemical behavior. This similarity occurs because the members of a group have the same number ...

Ionic Radii

Ionic radius is the measure used to describe the size of an ion. A cation always has fewer electrons and the same number of protons as the parent atom; it ...

Ionization Energy

The amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from a gaseous atom in its ground state is called its first ionization energy ...

Electron Affinity

The electron affinity (EA) is the energy change for adding an electron to a gaseous atom to form an anion (negative ion).



This process can be either ...

Alkali Metals

Group 1 elements are soft and shiny metallic solids. They are malleable, ductile, and good conductors of heat and electricity. The melting points of the ...

Halogens

Group 17 elements, known as halogens, are nonmetals. At room temperature, fluorine and chlorine are gases, bromine is a liquid, and iodine a solid. ...

Noble Gases


The elements in group 18 are noble gases (helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon). They earned the name &ldquo;noble&rdquo; because they were ...

Periodic Table
• Properties
• Trends

Content elaboration: In the Physical Science course, the concept that elements are placed in order of increasing atomic number in the periodic table such that elements with similar properties are placed in the same column is introduced. How the periodic table is divided into groups, families, periods, metals, nonmetals and metalloids is also included and will be revisited here. In this course, with more information about the electron configuration of elements, similarities in the configuration of the valence electrons for a particular group can be observed. The electron configuration of an atom can be determined from the position on the periodic table. The repeating pattern in the electron configuration for elements on the periodic table explains many of the trends in the properties observed. Atomic theory is used to describe and explain trends in properties across periods or down columns including atomic radii, ionic radii, first ionization energies, electronegativities and whether the element is a solid or gas at room temperature. Additional ionization energies, electron affinities and periodic properties of the transition elements, and the lanthanide and actinide series are reserved for more advanced study.

Periodic Table

Types of Chemical Bonds

Chemical bonding theories were pioneered by American chemist Gilbert&#xA0;N. Lewis. He developed a model called the Lewis model to explain the type and ...

Lewis Symbols and the Octet Rule

Chemical bonds are complex interactions between two or more atoms or ions, which reduce the potential energy of the molecule. Gilbert N. Lewis developed a ...

Ionic Bonding and Electron Transfer

Ions are atoms or molecules bearing an electrical charge. A cation (a positive ion) forms when a neutral atom loses one or more electrons from its valence ...

The Born-Haber Cycle

Lattice Energy&#xA0;

An ionic compound is stable because of the electrostatic attraction between its positive and negative ions. The lattice energy of a ...

trends-in-lattice-energy-ion-size-and-charge

Trends in Lattice Energy: Ion Size and Charge

An ionic compound is stable because of the electrostatic attraction between its positive and negative ions. The lattice energy of a compound is a measure ...

Covalent Bonding and Lewis Structures

Compared to ionic bonds, which results from the transfer of electrons between metallic and nonmetallic atoms, covalent bonds result from the mutual ...

Electronegativity

Whether a bond is nonpolar or polar covalent is determined by a property of the bonding atoms called electronegativity.&#xA0;

Electronegativity values of ...

bond-polarity-dipole-moment-and-percent-ionic-character

Bond Polarity, Dipole Moment, and Percent Ionic Character

Bond Polarity

The absolute value of the difference in electronegativity (&Delta;EN) of two bonded atoms provides a rough measure of the polarity to be ...

lewis-structures-of-molecular-compounds-and-polyatomic-ions

Lewis Structures of Molecular Compounds and Polyatomic Ions

To draw Lewis structures for complicated molecules and molecular ions, it is helpful to follow a step-by-step procedure as outlined:


	Determine the ...

Resonance

The Lewis structure of a nitrite anion (NO2&minus;) may actually be drawn in two different ways, distinguished by the locations of the N-O and N=O ...

Formal Charges

In some cases, there are seemingly more than one valid Lewis structures for molecules and polyatomic ions. The concept of formal charges can be used to ...

Exceptions to the Octet Rule

Many covalent molecules have central atoms that do not have eight electrons in their Lewis structures. These molecules fall into three categories:


	...

Bond Energies and Bond Lengths

Stable molecules exist because covalent bonds hold the atoms together. The strength of a covalent bond is measured by the energy required to break it, ...

VSEPR Theory and the Basic Shapes

Overview of VSEPR Theory

Valence shell electron-pair repulsion theory (VSEPR theory) enables us to predict the molecular structure, including approximate ...

vsepr-theory-and-the-effect-of-lone-pairs

VSEPR Theory and the Effect of Lone Pairs

Effect of Lone Pairs of Electrons&nbsp;on Molecule Geometry

It is important to note that electron-pair geometry around a central atom is not the same ...

Predicting Molecular Geometry

VSEPR Theory for Determination of Electron Pair Geometries

The following procedure uses VSEPR theory to determine the electron pair geometries and the ...

Molecular Shape and Polarity

Dipole Moment of a Molecule

Polar covalent bonds connect two atoms with differing electronegativities, leaving one atom with a partial positive charge ...

Valence Bond Theory

Overview of Valence Bond Theory

Valence bond theory describes a covalent bond as the overlap of half-filled atomic orbitals (each containing a single ...

Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals I

The mathematical expression known as the wave function, &#x3C8;, contains information about each orbital and the wavelike properties of electrons in an ...

Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals II

sp3d and sp3d&nbsp;2 Hybridization

To describe the five bonding orbitals in a trigonal bipyramidal arrangement, we must use five of the valence shell ...

Molecular Orbital Theory I

Overview of Molecular Orbital Theory

Molecular orbital theory describes the distribution of electrons in molecules in the same way as the distribution of ...

Molecular Orbital Theory II

Molecular Orbital Energy Diagrams

The relative energy levels of atomic and molecular orbitals are typically shown in a molecular orbital diagram. For a ...

Bonding in Metals

Metallic bonds are formed between two metal atoms. A simplified model to describe metallic bonding has been developed by Paul Dr&#xFC;de called the ...

Chemical bonding
• lonic
• Polar/covalent

Content elaboration: Content in the Physical Science course included recognizing that atoms with unpaired electrons tend to form ionic and covalent bonds with other atoms, forming molecules, ionic lattices or network covalent structures. In this course, electron configuration, electronegativity values and energy considerations will be applied to bonding and the properties of materials with different types of bonding. Atoms of many elements are more stable when they are bonded to other atoms. In such cases, as atoms bond, energy is released to the surroundings, resulting in a system with lower energy. An atom's electron configuration, particularly the valence electrons, determines how an atom interacts with other atoms. Molecules, ionic lattices and network covalent structures have different, yet predictable, properties that depend on the identity of the elements and the types of bonds formed. Differences in electronegativity values can be used to predict where a bond fits on the continuum between ionic and covalent bonds. The polarity of a bond depends on the electronegativity difference and the distance between the atoms (bond length). Polar covalent bonds are introduced as an intermediary between ionic and pure covalent bonds. The concept of metallic bonding is also introduced to explain many of the properties of metals (e.g., conductivity). Since most compounds contain multiple bonds, a substance may contain more than one type of bond. Carbon atoms can bond together and with other atoms, especially hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur, to form chains, rings and branching networks that are present in a variety of important compounds, including synthetic polymers, fossil fuels and the large molecules essential to life.

Chemical bonding

Chemical Formulas

A chemical formula presents information about the proportions of atoms constituting a particular chemical compound or molecule, mainly using symbols of ...

ionic-compounds-formulas-and-nomenclature

Ionic Compounds: Formulas and Nomenclature

An element composed of atoms that readily lose electrons (a metal) can react with an element composed of atoms that readily gain electrons (a nonmetal) to ...

molecular-compounds-formulas-and-nomenclature

Molecular Compounds: Formulas and Nomenclature

Molecular compounds or covalent compounds result when atoms share electrons to form covalent bonds. Since there is no electron transfer, molecular ...

Organic Compounds

All living things are formed mostly of carbon compounds called organic compounds. The category of organic compounds includes both natural and synthetic ...

Classification of Elements and Compounds

Pure substances consist of only one type of matter. A pure substance can be an element or a compound. An element consists of only one type of atom, while ...

Molecular Models

Physical models representing molecular architectures of chemical compounds play essential roles in understanding chemistry. The use of molecular models ...

Representing compounds
• Formula writing
• Nomenclature
• Models and shapes (Lewis structures, ball and stick, molecular geometries)

Content elaboration: Using the periodic table, formulas of ionic compounds containing specific elements can be predicted. This can include ionic compounds made up of elements from groups 1, 2, 17, hydrogen, oxygen and polyatomic ions (given the formula and charge of the polyatomic ion). Given the formula, a compound can be named using conventional systems that include Greek prefixes and Roman numerals where appropriate. Given the name of an ionic or covalent substance, formulas can be written. Many different models can be used to represent compounds including chemical formulas, Lewis structures, and ball and stick models. These models can be used to visualize atoms and molecules and to predict the properties of substances. Each type of representation provides unique information about the compound. Different representations are better suited for particular substances. Lewis structures can be drawn to represent covalent compounds using a simple set of rules and can be combined with valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory to predict the three-dimensional electron pair and molecular geometry of compounds. Lewis structures and molecular geometries will only be constructed for the following combination of elements: hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, sulfur and the halogens.

Representing compounds

Every measurement provides three kinds of information: the size or magnitude of the measurement (a number), a standard of comparison for the measurement ...

Measurement: Derived Units

The International System of Units or SI system, by international agreement, has fixed measurement units for seven fundamental properties: length, mass, ...

Uncertainty in Measurement: Accuracy and Precision

Scientists typically make repeated measurements of a quantity to ensure the quality of their findings and to evaluate both the precision and the accuracy ...

Uncertainty in Measurement: Reading Instruments

Counting is the type of measurement that is free from uncertainty, provided the number of objects being counted does not change during the process. Such ...

Uncertainty in Measurement: Significant Figures

All the digits in a measurement, including the uncertain last digit, are called significant figures or significant digits. Note that zero may be a ...

Dimensional Analysis

Dimensional analysis, also known as the factor label method, is a versatile approach for mathematical operations. The main principle behind this approach ...

Quantifying matter

Content elaboration: In earlier grades, properties of materials were quantified with measurements that were always associated with some error. In this course, scientific protocols for quantifying the properties of matter accurately and precisely are studied. Using the International System of Units (SI), significant digits or figures, scientific notation, error analysis and dimensional analysis are vital to scientific communication. There are three domains of magnitude in size and time: the macroscopic (human) domain, the cosmic domain and the submicroscopic (atomic and subatomic) domain. Measurements in the cosmic domain and submicroscopic domains require complex instruments and/or procedures. Matter can be quantified in a way that macroscopic properties such as mass can reflect the number of particles present. Elemental samples are a mixture of several isotopes with different masses. The atomic mass of an element is calculated given the mass and relative abundance of each isotope of the element as it exists in nature. Because the mass of an atom is very small, the mole is used to translate between the atomic and macroscopic levels. A mole is equal to the number of atoms in exactly 12 grams of the isotope carbon-12. The mass of one mole of a substance is equal to its molar mass in grams. The molar mass for a substance can be used in conjunction with Avogadro's number and the density of a substance to convert between mass, moles, volume and number of particles of a sample.

Measurement: SI Units and Conversions

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