Name: using standard enthalpy values in chemistry
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Standard Enthalpy of Formation

שינוי האנתלפיה של תגובה ניתן למדידה באמצעות קלורימטר, או באמצעות חישוב השינוי באנתלפיה בין המגיבים והתוצרים. יחד עם זאת, לא ניתן למדוד ישירות את האנתלפיות המוחלטות של המגיבים והמוצרים, לכן כימאים בדרך כלל משתמשים בשינוי באנתלפיה, או דלתא H, יחסית לחומר שהוגדר כחומר סימוכין במצב סטנדרטי מוסכם. המצב הסטנדרטי מוגדר לפי כמה תנאים, כולל טמפרטורה מוגדרת, בדרך כלל 25 מעלות צלזיוס או 298 קלווין ולחץ קבוע של 1 בר לגזים.בתמיסות, המצב הסטנדרטי הוא ריכוז של 1 מולר של מומס טהור בממיס. מצבו הסטנדרטי של חומר כולל גם את מצב הצבירה שבו החומר מתקיים בתנאים אלה. לדוגמה, נתרן כלורי כמוצק, כספית כנוזל או הליום כגז.אם יסוד קיים ביותר ממצב צבירה אחד בתנאים אלה, צורת היסוד היציבה ביותר מוגדרת כמצב הסטנדרטי. לדוגמה, פחמן יכול להתקיים כגבישי גרפיט או כיהלום, אך גרפיט הוא הצורה היציבה ביותר ולכן היא המצב הסטנדרטי של פחמן. כשאלמנטים במצבים הסטנדרטיים שלהם משתלבים ויוצרים 1 מול של תרכובת טהורה, האנתלפיה של התגובה נקראת האנתלפיה הסטנדרטית, או החום הסטנדרטי של תגובת ההיווצרות.הסימון הוא דלתא H אפס, ציון תחתי f, כאשר אפס מציין שמדובר במצב סטנדרטי של היסודות המרכיבים, ואילו f מעיד על תגבות היווצרות. האנתלפיה הסטנדרטית של תגובת היווצרות כשמדובר ביסודות טהורים בתנאים סטנדרטיים היא תמיד אפס מפני שאין תגובה, ולכן אין שינוי באנתלפיה כאשר היסוד נמצא כבר במצבו הסטנדרטי. את ערכי האנתלפיה הסטנדרטית של תגבות ההיווצרות של תרכובת, בקילוג'ול למול, ניתן למצוא בטבלאות נתונים.חומרים אלה כוללים יסודות במצבים שאינם סטנדרטיים, כגון נתרן גזי ותרכובות כמו נתרן כלוריד. את שינוי האנתלפיה הסטנדרטי של תגובה ניתן לחשב על סמך ההפרש בין התוצרים והמגיבים, שאותו ניתן לחשב באמצעות ערכי האנתלפיה מטבלאות הנתונים.

<ol>
	<li>הוק, אריק לי. "חישוב אנתלפיות סטנדרטיות של היווצרות אלקנים: המחשת מכניקה מולקולרית ותוכניות גיליון אלקטרוני." כתב עת לחינוך כימי 76, מס '2 (1999): 278.</li>
	<li>מזוקה, ג'יימס וו., אלכסיס ר. דאונינג וכריסטופר פוטר. "חישובי מבנה אלקטרוניים מתוקנים אמפירית המיושמים במעבדה לאנתלפיה של כימיה פיזיקלית בעירה." כתב עת לחינוך כימי 96, מס '6 (2019): 1165-1170.</li>
	<li>ינסן, מייקל פ. "עלות הסבת רכב המונע בבנזין לפרופאן. בעיית סקירה מעשית לתיכון או למבוא לכימיה". כתב עת לחינוך כימי 77, מס '12 (2000): 1578. 
	 </li>
</ol>

אנתלפיה סטנדרטית של היווצרות

<div style="direction:rtl">שינויים באנתלפיה מוצגים בדרך כלל עבור תגובות שבהן הן המגיבים והן התוצרים נמצאים באותם תנאים. מצב סטנדרטי הוא קבוצה מקובלת של תנאים המשמשים כנקודת ייחוס לקביעת מאפיינים בתנאים שונים אחרים. עבור כימאים, מצב התקן של IUPAC מתייחס לחומרים בלחץ של 1 בר ותמיסות ב-1 M ואינו מציין טמפרטורה. טבלאות תרמוכימיות רבות מציגות ערכים עם מצב סטנדרטי של 1 atm. מכיוון שה-ΔH של התגובה משתנה מעט מאוד עם שינויים קטנים כל כך בלחץ (1 בר = 0.987 atm), ערכי ΔH (למעט הערכים הנמדדים במדויק ביותר) זהים בעצם בשתי מערכות התנאים הסטנדרטיים. "o" בסימן שינוי האנתלפיה מציין מצב סטנדרטי. מכיוון שהטמפרטורה הרגילה (אך לא סטנדרטית מבחינה טכנית) היא 298.15 K, טמפרטורה זו תונח אלא אם ציינו טמפרטורה אחרת. לפיכך, הסמל (ΔH°) משמש לציון שינוי האנתלפיה עבור תהליך המתרחש בתנאים אלה. (הסמל ΔH משמש לציון שינוי אנתלפיה עבור תגובה המתרחשת בתנאים לא סטנדרטיים.) השינויים באנתלפיה עבור סוגים רבים של תהליכים כימיים ופיזיקליים זמינים בספרות ההתייחסות, כולל אלה עבור תגובות בעירה, מעברי פאזה ותגובות היווצרות. מכיוון ששינוי האנתלפיה עבור תגובה נתונה הוא פרופורציונלי לכמויות החומרים המעורבים, ניתן לדווח עליו על בסיס זה (כלומר, כ-ΔH עבור כמויות ספציפיות של מגיבים). עם זאת, לעתים קרובות אנו מוצאים שימושי יותר לחלק תכונה נרחבת אחת (ΔH) באחרת (כמות החומר), ולדווח על ערך אינטנסיבי לכמות של ΔH, לעתים קרובות "מנורמל" לבסיס פר-מול. <h4>אנתלפיה סטנדרטית של היווצרות</h4> האנתלפיה הסטנדרטית של היווצרות ΔHf° היא שינוי אנתלפיה לתגובה שבה נוצרת בדיוק מול אחת של חומר טהור מיסודות חופשיים במצבם היציבים ביותר בתנאי מצב סטנדרטיים. ערכים אלו שימושיים במיוחד לחישוב או חיזוי של שינויים באנתלפיה עבור תגובות כימיות שאינן מעשיות או מסוכנות לביצוע, או עבור תהליכים שקשה לבצע עבורם מדידות. באמצעות ערכים ידועים של אנתלפיות סטנדרטיות של היווצרות, ניתן לקבוע את שינוי האנתלפיה עבור כל תגובה. האנתלפיה הסטנדרטית של היווצרות CO2 (g) היא -393.5 קילו-ג'ול/מול. זהו השינוי באנתלפיה עבור התגובה האקסותרמית: <img alt="Eq1" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/801/801_Equations-01.png" style="height: 40px;"> החל מהמגיבים בלחץ של 1 atm ו-25 מעלות צלזיוס (כאשר הפחמן קיים כגרפיט, הצורה היציבה ביותר של פחמן בתנאים אלו) ומסתיימת במול אחת של CO2, גם היא ב-1 atm ו-25 מעלות צלזיוס. עבור דו תחמוצת החנקן, NO2 (g), ΔHf° הוא 33.2 קילו ג'ול/מול. זהו שינוי האנתלפיה עבור התגובה האנדותרמית: <img alt="Eq2" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/801/801_Equations-02.png" style="height: 40px;"> משוואת תגובה עם 1/2 מול של N2 ו-1 מול של O2 נכונה במקרה זה מכיוון שהאנתלפיה הסטנדרטית של היווצרות מתייחסת תמיד למול 1 של תוצר: NO2 (g). בהגדרה, האנתלפיה הסטנדרטית של היווצרות של יסוד בצורתו היציבה ביותר שווה לאפס בתנאים סטנדרטיים. לדוגמה, האנתלפיות הסטנדרטיות של היווצרות פחמן (גרפן), גז חמצן דיאטומי, גז חנקן דיאטומי, מתכת נתרן וכספית נוזלית הם אפס בתנאים סטנדרטיים. טקסט זה מותאם מ <a href="https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/5-3-enthalpy">Openstax, Chemistry 2e, Section 5.3: Enthalpy.</a></div>

שינויים באנתלפיה הם בדרך כלל טבלה עבור תגובות שבהן הן המגיבים והן המוצרים נמצאים באותם תנאים. מצב סטנדרטי הוא מצב נפוץ ...

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using standard enthalpy values in chemistry

Enthalpy changes are often listed for reactions that start and end under the same conditions. Chemists use a standard state as a reference set of conditions for comparing properties. In IUPAC terms, the standard state means 1 bar of pressure and 1 M solutions, but it does not set a temperature.

Many thermochemical tables still use 1 atm as the reference pressure. Because the difference between 1 bar and 1 atm is very small, enthalpy change usually stays almost the same. A superscripted o in the enthalpy symbol shows that the value is for standard state. The usual temperature is 298.15 K, so ΔH° is often used for a process under these conditions. ΔH is used for nonstandard conditions.

Standard enthalpy values are available for many chemical and physical processes. These include combustion reactions, phase changes, and formation reactions. Enthalpy change depends on the amount of substance involved, so it can be reported for a specific reaction amount. It is often more useful to divide by moles and give a per-mole value.

The standard enthalpy of formation, ΔHf°, is the enthalpy change when 1 mole of a pure substance forms from its elements in their most stable states under standard conditions. This value is useful when a reaction is hard to measure directly or would be unsafe to run. Known formation enthalpies can also be used to calculate the enthalpy change of other reactions.

For example, the standard enthalpy of formation of CO2(g) is −393.5 kJ/mol. That value matches the exothermic formation of one mole of carbon dioxide from graphite, the most stable form of carbon under these conditions, with all substances at 1 atm and 25 °C. For NO2(g), ΔHf° is 33.2 kJ/mol. Here the balanced formation reaction uses 1/2 mole of N2 and 1 mole of O2 because the value must refer to 1 mole of NO2 product.

By definition, an element in its most stable form has a standard enthalpy of formation of zero. Examples include carbon as graphene, diatomic oxygen gas, diatomic nitrogen gas, sodium metal, and liquid mercury. These zero values help make thermochemical calculations consistent.

Using Standard Enthalpy Values in Chemistry

using-standard-enthalpy-values-in-chemistry

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Calculating reaction heat with Hess's law uses standard enthalpies of formation to find the enthalpy change of a reaction. When the formation values for the reactants and products are known, the overall reaction can be broken into simpler stepwise reactions. This approach helps show how the heat change for the full reaction is built from smaller parts. First, the reactants are thought of as being decomposed into their component elements. The enthalpy change for this step is proportional to the...

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Learn how standard enthalpy values are reported, why ΔH° uses reference conditions, and how standard enthalpies of formation help calculate reaction energy.

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Definition and Measurement of Pressure: Atmospheric Pressure, Barometer, and Manometer

Gas pressure is caused by force exerted by gas molecules colliding with the surfaces of objects. Although the force of each collision is very small, any ...

gas-laws-boyle-s-gay-lussac-charles-avogadro-s-and-ideal-gas-law

Gas Laws: Boyle's, Gay-Lussac, Charles', Avogadro's, and Ideal Gas Law

Through experiments, scientists established the mathematical relationships between pairs of variables, such as pressure and temperature, pressure and ...

applications-of-the-ideal-gas-law-molar-mass-density-and-volume

Applications of the Ideal Gas Law: Molar Mass, Density, and Volume

The volume occupied by one mole of a substance is its molar volume. The ideal gas law, PV = nRT, &nbsp;suggests that the volume of a given quantity of gas ...

mixtures-of-gases-dalton-s-law-of-partial-pressures-and-mole-fractions

Mixtures of Gases: Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures and Mole Fractions

Unless individual gases chemically react with each other, the individual gases in a mixture of gases do not affect each other&rsquo;s pressure. Each gas ...

chemical-stoichiometry-gases-using-ideal-gas-law-to-determine

Chemical Stoichiometry and Gases: Using Ideal Gas Law to Determine Moles

Chemical stoichiometry describes the quantitative relationships between reactants and products in chemical reactions.

In addition to measuring quantities ...

basic-postulates-kinetic-molecular-theory-particle-size-energy

Basic Postulates of Kinetic Molecular Theory: Particle Size, Energy, and Collision

The ideal-gas equation, which is empirical, describes the behavior of gases by establishing relationships between their macroscopic properties. For ...

kinetic-molecular-theory-gas-laws-explain-properties-gas

Kinetic Molecular Theory and Gas Laws Explain Properties of Gas Molecules

The test of the kinetic molecular theory (KMT) and its postulates is its ability to explain and describe the behavior of a gas. The various gas laws ...

kinetic-molecular-theory-molecular-velocities-temperature-kinetic

Kinetic Molecular Theory: Molecular Velocities, Temperature, and Kinetic Energy

The kinetic molecular theory qualitatively explains the behaviors described by the various gas laws. The postulates of this theory may be applied in a ...

behavior-gas-molecules-molecular-diffusion-mean-free-path

Behavior of Gas Molecules: Molecular Diffusion, Mean Free Path, and Effusion

Although gaseous molecules travel at tremendous speeds (hundreds of meters per second), they collide with other gaseous molecules and travel in many ...

real-gases-effects-intermolecular-forces-molecular-volume-deriving

Real Gases: Effects of Intermolecular Forces and Molecular Volume Deriving Van der Waals Equation

Thus far, the ideal gas law, PV = nRT, has been applied to a variety of different types of problems, ranging from reaction stoichiometry and empirical and ...

Ideal Gas Law

Source: Laboratory of Dr. Andreas Z&#252;ttel - Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology
The ideal gas law describes the behavior ...

Derivation of the Ideal Gas Law
Gases are a fundamental state of matter. A gas is a collection of molecules that have a significant distance between their ...

Source: Smaa Koraym at Johns Hopkins University, MD, USA

	Preparation of the LaboratoryExpand
	Here, we show the laboratory preparation for 10 students ...

Source: Smaa Koraym at Johns Hopkins University, MD, USA

	Determining the Mass of the Unknown LiquidExpand
	According to the ideal gas law for a given ...

Use mathematics and computational thinking to explain the relationships among pressure, temperature, volume, and quantity of gas, both qualitatively and quantitatively.

PS.Chm.7.3

Understand the relationship among pressure, temperature, volume, and phase.

Using Standard Enthalpy Values in Chemistry

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