Name: electron regions in atomic orbitals
Uploaded: 2020-09-03T13:38:27.000Z
Duration: 2 min 44 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

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High School

Chemistry and Physics

IPC.7

IPC.7.E

Atomic Orbitals

האזור הצפוף ביותר בענן האלקטרונים, שבו הסיכוי הגדול ביותר למצוא אלקטרון, מתואר במונחים של אורביטלים אטומים. צורתו של אורביטל אטומי נקבעת על ידי המספר הקוונטי הזוויתי, l. נזכיר כי הערכים של l מבוססים על המספר הקוונטי היסודי, n.ערכים אפשריים של l נעים בין אפס ל-n מינוס 1. כאשר n גדול מ-1, קיימות רמות משנה מרובות. כל ערך של l תואם לאורביטל s, p, d או f.אורביטל האנרגיה הנמוך ביותר הוא אורביטל 1-s. זהו אורביטל כדורי סימטרי. צפיפות ההסתברות של אורביטל 1-s מגלה שסביר להניח שהאלקטרון יימצא בגרעין.יחד עם זאת, בהתחשב בכוחות האלקטרוסטטיים בין פרוטונים לאלקטרונים, זה לא סביר. הכפלת צפיפות ההסתברות בנפח של קליפות כדוריות דקות עם רדיוס r היא מייצגת יותר. הסיכוי הכולל למצוא אלקטרונים בתוך הקליפה הדקה במרחק r מהגרעין היא פונקציית ההתפלגות הרדיאלית.במקרה של מימן, ההסתברות הגדולה ביותר למציאת אלקטרונים היא 52.9 פיקומטר מהגרעין. לכן, צורתו של אורביטל האטום 1-s של מימן היא כדורית ברדיוס של 52.9 פיקומטרים. האורביטלים 2-s ו-3-s גם הם כדוריים.הם גדולים יותר ויש להם צמתים. ההסתברות למצוא אלקטרון בצומת היא אפס. רמות אנרגיה עם מספר יסודי-n שווה ל-2 או יותר כוללות גם שלושה אורביטלי p.אורביטלים אלה מעוצבים בצורת אונה עם צומת בגרעין. הכיוון שלהם מתואר על ידי הערך של m_l. שלושת אורביטלי p הם אנכיים זה לזה.לרמות אנרגיה עם מספר קוננטי של n השוות ל-3 ויותר יש גם חמישה אורביטלי d. לאורביטלי d עם צורת עלה התלתן יש ארבע אונות של צפיפות אלקטרונים ושני צמתים של מישורים ניצבים. אחד מאורביטלי d שונה במקצת.לאורביטלי f יש יותר אונות וצמתים. אורביטלים אלה קיימים ברמות עם מספר קוונטי יסודי של n השווה ל-4 ויותר. כשמניחים את האורביטלים זה על זה, מתגלה מעין צורה כדורית.זו הסיבה שאטומים מיוצגים בדרך כלל ככדוריות.

אורביטלים אטומיים

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אורביטל אטומי מייצג את האזורים התלת מימדיים באטום שבו לאלקטרון יש את ההסתברות הגבוהה ביותר לשהות. פונקציית ההתפלגות הרדיאלית מציינת את ההסתברות הכוללת למציאת אלקטרון בתוך הקליפה הדקה במרחק r מהגרעין. לאורביטלים אטומיים יש צורות ברורות אשר נקבעות על ידי l, מספר התנע הזוויתי הקוונטי. האורביטלים מצוירים לעתים קרובות עם משטח גבול, המקיף את האזורים הצפופים ביותר של הענן. 

המספר הקוונטי של התנע הזוויתי הוא מספר שלם שעשוי לקבל את הערכים, l = 0, 1, 2, …, n – 1. לאורביטל עם מספר קוונטי עיקרי של 1 (n = 1) יכול להיות רק ערך אחד של l ( l = 0), בעוד שמספר קוונטי עיקרי של 2 (n = 2) מאפשר l = 0 ו-l = 1. אורביטלים בעלי אותו ערך של l מגדירים כתת-קליפה.

אורביטלים עם l = 0 נקראים אורביטלים s והם מרכיבים את התת-קליפות. הערך l = 1 מתאים לאורביטלים p. עבור n נתון, אורביטלים p מהווים תת-קליפה p (כלומר, 3p אם n = 3). האורביטלים עם l = 2 נקראים אורביטלים d. האורביטלים עם l = 3, 4 ו-5 הם האורביטלים f, g ו-h.

אורביטל האנרגיה הנמוך ביותר הוא אורביטל ה-1s. זהו אורביטל סימטרי כדורי. צפיפות ההסתברות (ψ2) של אוריבטל 1s מרמזת שסביר להניח שהאלקטרון יימצא בגרעין. עם זאת, בהתחשב בכוחות האלקטרוסטטיים בין פרוטונים לאלקטרונים, זה לא מייצג במדויק את המקום שבו יתגורר האלקטרון. במקום זאת, נעשה שימוש בפונקציית ההתפלגות הרדיאלית, שהיא גרף של ההסתברות הכוללת למצוא אלקטרון באורביטל ברדיוס r נתון. פונקציית ההתפלגות הרדיאלית נמצאת על ידי הכפלת צפיפות ההסתברות בנפח של קליפות כדוריות דקות עם רדיוסים, r. עבור אורביטל 1s של מימן, לפונקציית ההתפלגות הרדיאלית יש ערך אפסי בגרעין, אשר גדל למקסימום ב-52.9 פיקומטר לפני ירידה עם r הגדל. 

ישנם מרחקים מסוימים מהגרעין שבהם צפיפות ההסתברות למציאת אלקטרון הנמצא באורביטל מסוים היא אפס. במילים אחרות, הערך של פונקציית הגל ψ הוא אפס במרחק זה עבור אורביטל זה. ערך כזה של r נקרא צומת רדיאלית. מספר הצמתים הרדיאליים באורביטל הוא n – l – 1. עבור אורביטלים של 2s, כאשר n = 1, ישנה צומת רדיאלית אחת, ואילו לאורביטלים של 3s יש שני צמתים רדיאליים. 

כל רמה עיקרית עם n = 2 או יותר מכילה שלושה אורביטלים p. לשלושת האורביטלים p יש שתי אודות עם הצומת הממוקמת בגרעין. הכיוון של האורביטל p במרחב מתואר על ידי הערך של ml. שלושת האורביטלים p מאונכים הדדיים (אורתוגונלים) זה לזה. לאורביטלי ה-p הגבוהים יותר (3p, 4p, 5p ומעלה) יש צורות דומות אך הם גדולים יותר בגודלם עם צמתים רדיאליים נוספים.

רמות עיקריות עם n = 3 או יותר מכילות חמישה d אורביטלים. ארבעה מהאורביטלים הללו מורכבים מצורת עלה תלתן, עם ארבע אונות צפופות באלקטרון. ישנם שני צמתים מישוריים מאונכים שמצטלבים בגרעין. בצמתים המישוריים הללו, צפיפות האלקטרונים היא אפס. אחד מאורביטלי d שונה קצת בצורתו ויש לו שתי אונות המכוונות בציר z עם טבעת בצורת סופגנייה במישור ה-xy. רמות עיקריות עם n = 4 ומעלה מכילות שבעה אורביטלים f, בעלי צורות מורכבות. לאורביטלים אלה יש יותר צמתים ואונות מאשר לאורביטלים D.


<img alt="Figure1" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/983/983Image 1.png" style="width: 700px;"> 
איור 1: אורביטלים s, p, d ו-f מייצגים.

הצורות השונות של האורביטלים האטומיים מייצגות את האזורים התלת מימדיים שבתוכם סביר להניח שהאלקטרון יימצא. כל האורביטלים יחד יוצרים צורה כדורית בערך, וזו הסיבה שהאטומים מיוצגים בדרך כלל ככדורים. 

טקסט זה מותאם מ <a href="https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/6-3-development-of-quantum-theory">Openstax, Chemistry 2e, Section 6.3: Development of Quantum Theory.</a>

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אורביטל אטומי מייצג את האזורים התלת-ממדיים באטום שבהם לאלקטרון יש את ההסתברות הגבוהה ביותר להתגורר. ההתפלגות הרדיאלית ...

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Electronic Structure of Atoms

מבנה אלקטרוני של אטומים

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electron regions in atomic orbitals

Electron regions in atomic orbitals show where an electron is most likely to be found in an atom. These three-dimensional regions are often drawn as boundary surfaces around the densest part of the cloud.

The shape of an orbital depends on the angular momentum quantum number, l. This value can range from 0 to n - 1, where n is the principal quantum number. For n = 1, only l = 0 is allowed. For n = 2, both l = 0 and l = 1 are allowed.

Orbitals with the same value of l form a subshell. The l = 0 orbitals are s orbitals, and they make up s subshells. The l = 1 orbitals are p orbitals, which form a p subshell such as 3p when n = 3. The l = 2 orbitals are d orbitals. The l = 3, 4, and 5 orbitals are called f, g, and h orbitals.

The lowest-energy orbital is the 1s orbital. It is spherically symmetric. The probability density, ψ², suggests that an electron is most likely found at the nucleus. But this does not fully match electron behavior. The radial distribution function gives the total probability of finding an electron at a distance r from the nucleus. It is found by multiplying the probability density by the volume of thin spherical shells.

For the 1s orbital of hydrogen, the radial distribution function is zero at the nucleus. It rises to a maximum at 52.9 picometers and then decreases as r increases. Some distances from the nucleus have zero probability density for a given orbital. These points are called radial nodes. The number of radial nodes is n - l - 1. A 2s orbital has one radial node, and a 3s orbital has two.

Each principal level with n = 2 or more contains three p orbitals. Each p orbital has two lobes and a node at the nucleus. Their orientation in space is described by m_l. The three p orbitals are mutually perpendicular. Higher p orbitals, such as 3p, 4p, and 5p, have the same general shape but are larger and contain additional radial nodes.

Principal levels with n = 3 or more contain five d orbitals. Four of them have a cloverleaf shape with four electron-dense lobes. They also have two perpendicular nodal planes that meet at the nucleus. The fifth d orbital has two lobes along the z-axis and a donut-shaped ring in the xy plane.

Principal levels with n = 4 and greater contain seven f orbitals. These orbitals have complex shapes with more nodes and lobes than d orbitals. Together, s, p, d, and f orbitals help explain why atoms are often drawn as spheres, even though the electron regions inside them have distinct shapes.

Electron Regions in Atomic Orbitals

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Explore electron regions in atomic orbitals, including s, p, d, and f shapes, radial nodes, and the radial distribution function for high school chemistry.

Electron Regions in Atomic Orbitals | JoVE K12

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The amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from a gaseous atom in its ground state is called its first ionization energy ...

Electron Affinity

The electron affinity (EA) is the energy change for adding an electron to a gaseous atom to form an anion (negative ion).



This process can be either ...

Alkali Metals

Group 1 elements are soft and shiny metallic solids. They are malleable, ductile, and good conductors of heat and electricity. The melting points of the ...

Halogens

Group 17 elements, known as halogens, are nonmetals. At room temperature, fluorine and chlorine are gases, bromine is a liquid, and iodine a solid. ...

Noble Gases


The elements in group 18 are noble gases (helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon). They earned the name &ldquo;noble&rdquo; because they were ...

Use patterns within the Periodic Table to predict the relative physical and chemical properties of elements.

IPC.7.B

Classifying Matter by State

Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes it undergoes. Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Matter is all around us; the air, ...

Classifying Matter by Composition

Matter: Pure Substances and Mixtures
According to its composition, the matter can be classified into two broad categories &mdash; pure substances and ...

Phase Transitions

Whether solid, liquid, or gas, a substance&#39;s state depends on the order and arrangement of its particles (atoms, molecules, or ions). Particles in the ...

phase-transitions-vaporization-and-condensation

Phase Transitions: Vaporization and Condensation

The physical form of a substance changes on changing its temperature. For example, raising the temperature of a liquid causes the liquid to vaporize ...

Phase Transitions: Melting and Freezing

Heating a crystalline solid increases the average energy of its atoms, molecules, or ions, and the solid gets hotter. At some point, the added energy ...

phase-transitions-sublimation-and-deposition

Phase Transitions: Sublimation and Deposition

Some solids can transition directly into the gaseous state, bypassing the liquid state, via a process known as sublimation. At room temperature and ...

Melting Points

Melting Points in Organic Chemistry
The melting point of a compound is the temperature at which the solid phase transitions into the liquid phase at a ...

Boiling Points

Source: Lara Al Hariri at the University of Massachusetts Amherst, MA, USA

	Preparation of the LaboratoryExpand
	Here, we show the laboratory preparation ...

Explain how physical and chemical properties of substances are related to their usage in everyday life such as in sunscreen, cookware, industrial applications, and fuels.

IPC.7.C

Emission Spectra

When solids, liquids, or condensed gases are heated sufficiently, they radiate some of the excess energy as light. Photons produced in this manner have a ...

Metal Flame Emission

Metal Flame Emission
Flame testing is an analytical technique where a sample is placed in a flame, and the characteristic flame color is used to identify ...

An atomic orbital represents the three-dimensional regions in an atom where an electron has the highest probability to reside. The radial distribution ...

Explain how electrons can transition from a high energy level to a low energy state, emitting photons at different frequencies for different energy transitions.

Science concepts. The student knows that relationships exist between the structure and properties of matter. The student is expected to:

Electron Regions in Atomic Orbitals

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