Name: ionization energy trends in the periodic table
Uploaded: 2020-09-03T13:38:28.000Z
Duration: 3 min 12 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

north-carolina-k-12-science-standard-course-of-study

NC K-12 Science Standard Course of Study

9-12

Chemistry

Matter and its Interactions

PS.Chm.2.2

Ionization Energy

ההתנהגות הכימית של אטומים ויונים מושפעת מאוד מהקלות או הקושי שלהם לגרוע אלקטרונים, במיוחד האלקטרונים החיצוניים ביותר, המשתתפים ביצירת קשר כימי. האנרגיה הנדרשת לגריעת אלקטרון מאטום גזי במצבו היסודי נקראת אנרגיית היינון הראשונה"ונמדדת בקילוג'ול למול. האנרגיה הנדרשת לגריעת האלקטרון הבא נקראת אנרגיית היינון השנייה, וכן הלאה.ככל שיורדים בעמודה, אנרגיות היינון פוחתות. נזכיר כי המספר הקוונטי היסודי של אלקטרוני ערכיות גדל ככל שיורדים בעמודה, והמשמעות היא אטומים גדולים יותר. לכן, ככל שהאלקטרונים רחוקים יותר, כך קל יותר לגרוע אותם.ביסודות הקבוצה המרכזית, אנרגיית היינון עולה לרוחב הטבלה. הסיבה נעוצה במספר האטומי ההולך וגדל. ככל שאלקטרוני ערכיות חווים מטען גרעיני אפקטיבי גבוה יותר, גריעת האלקטרונים החיצוניים נעשית קשה יותר.זה מסביר מדוע לכלור יש אנרגיית יינון גבוה יותר מאשר לנתרן, לדוגמה. באופן כללי, אנרגיית יינון היא מינימלית בקרב מתכות אלקליות ועולה לשיא עם כל גז אצילי. מתכות מעבר מפגינות עלייה קטנה באנרגיית היינון לרוחב הטבלה, ויסודות בלוק f מפגינים שינוי קטן אף יותר.אבל יש כמה יוצאים מהכלל. לבורון אנרגיית יינון קטנה יותר מאשר לבריליום, למרות שהוא רחוק יותר ימינה בטבלה המחזורית. לבריליום אלקטרוני 2s בעלי אנרגיה נמוכה יותר, ואילו לבורון יש אלקטרון 2p בעלי אנרגיה גבוהה יותר, מה שמקל על גריעתו, מבחינה אנרגטית.חריג נוסף הוא חמצן, שיש לו אנרגיית יינון ראשונה נמוכה יותר מחנקן. בהשוואה לחנקן, לחמצן יש ארבעה אלקטרוני p, וגריעת אלקטרון אחד מבטלת את דחיית האלקטרון לאלקטרון. לכן נדרשת פחות אנרגיה לתהליך היינון.חריגים אלה נצפים גם במחזורי המשך. גריעת אלקטרונים מקטיונים היא קשה יותר מאשר מאטומים ניטרליים. באופן כללי, אנרגיות היינון העוקבות עולות בקרב היסודות.קחו לדוגמה אשלגן. אנרגיית היינון השנייה שלו היא גבוהה יותר במידה משמעותית, כיוון שהיא כרוכה בהסרת אלטרון ליבה מיון עם תצורת גז אצילי. בדומה לכך, בסידן יש עלייה גדולה מאנרגיית היינון השנייה לשלישית כשאלקטרון ליבה נגרע מקטיון בתצורת גז אצילי.

אנרגיית יינון

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 כמות האנרגיה הדרושה כדי להסיר את האלקטרון הקשור בצורה רופפת ביותר מאטום גז במצב היסוד שלו נקראת אנרגיית היינון הראשונה(IE1). אנרגיית היינון הראשונה של יסוד, X, היא האנרגיה הנדרשת ליצירת קטיון עם מטען 1+: 
 <img alt="Eq1" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1049/1049_Equations-01.png" style="height: 40px;"> 

 האנרגיה הדרושה להסרת האלקטרון השני הכי קשור בצורה רופפת נקראת אנרגיית היינון השנייה (IE2). 
 <img alt="Eq2" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1049/1049_Equations-02.png" style="height: 40px;"> 

 האנרגיה הנדרשת להסרת האלקטרון השלישי היא אנרגיית היינון השלישית, וכן הלאה. אנרגיה נדרשת תמיד כדי להסיר אלקטרונים מאטומים או יונים, ולכן תהליכי היינון הם אנדותרמיים וערכי IE תמיד חיוביים. עבור אטומים גדולים יותר, האלקטרון הקשור בצורה רופפת ביותר ממוקם רחוק יותר מהגרעין ולכן קל יותר להסירו. לפיכך, ככל שהגודל (רדיוס אטומי) גדל, אנרגיית היינון צריכה לרדת. 

 בתוך מחזור, ה-IE1 בדרך כלל עולה עם עלייה ב-Z. במורד הקבוצה, ערך IE1 יורד בדרך כלל עם עליית Z. עם זאת, ישנן כמה סטיות שיטתיות ממגמה זו. שימו לב שאנרגיית היינון של בורון (מספר אטומי 5) קטנה מזו של בריליום (מספר אטומי 4) למרות שהמטען הגרעיני של בורון גדול בפרוטון אחד. ניתן להסביר זאת מכיוון שהאנרגיה של התת-קליפות עולה ככל ש-l עולה, עקב חדירה וסיכוך. בתוך כל קליפה אחת, אלקטרוני s נמוכים באנרגיה מאלקטרוני p. המשמעות היא שקשה יותר להסיר אלקטרון s מאטום מאשר אלקטרון p באותה קליפה. האלקטרון שהוסר במהלך יינון הבריליום ([He]2s2) הוא אלקטרון s, ואילו האלקטרון שהוסר במהלך יינון הבור ([He]2s22p1) הוא אלקטרון p; זה מביא לאנרגיית יינון ראשונה נמוכה יותר עבור בורון, למרות שהמטען הגרעיני שלו גדול בפרוטון אחד. לפיכך, אנו רואים סטייה קטנה מהמגמה החזויה המתרחשת בכל פעם שמתחילה תת-קליפה חדשה. 

 סטייה נוספת מתרחשת כאשר האורביטלים מתמלאים יותר מחצי. אנרגיית היינון הראשונה לחמצן קטנה מעט מזו של חנקן, למרות המגמה של הגדלת ערכי IE1 לאורך המחזור. עבור חמצן, הסרת אלקטרון אחד תבטל את דחיית האלקטרון-אלקטרון הנגרמת על ידי זיווג האלקטרונים באורביטל 2p ותגרום לאורביטל המלא בחצי (שזה חיובי מבחינה אנרגטית). שינויים אנלוגיים מתרחשים במחזורים עוקבים. 

 הוצאת אלקטרון מקטיון קשה יותר מהוצאת אלקטרון מאטום ניטרלי בגלל המשיכה האלקטרוסטטית הגדולה יותר לקטיון. כמו כן, הוצאת אלקטרון מקטיון בעל מטען חיובי גבוה יותר קשה יותר מאשר הוצאת אלקטרון מיון בעל מטען נמוך יותר. לפיכך, אנרגיות יינון עוקבות עבור יסוד אחד תמיד גדלות. כפי שניתן לראות בטבלה 1, יש עלייה גדולה באנרגיות היינון עבור כל יסוד. קפיצה זו מתאימה להסרה של אלקטרוני הגרעין, שקשה יותר להסירם מאלקטרוני הערכיות. לדוגמה, ל- Sc ו-Ga יש שלושה אלקטרונים ערכיים, כך שהעלייה המהירה באנרגיית היינון מתרחשת לאחר היינון השלישי.

 טבלה 1: אנרגיות יינון עוקבות עבור יסודות נבחרים (קילו-ג'ול/מול) 
 <table style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"> 
 	<tbody style="border: 1px solid black;"> 
 		<tr> 
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">Element</td> 
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">IE1</td> 
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">IE2</td> 
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">IE3</td> 
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">IE4</td> 
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">IE5</td> 
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">IE6</td> 
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">IE7</td> </tr> 
 	<tr> 
 				<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">K</td> 
 				<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">418.8</td> 
 				<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">3051.8</td> 
 				<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">4419.6</td> 
 				<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">5876.9</td> 
 				<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">7975.5</td> 
 				<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">9590.6</td> 
 				<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">11343</td> </tr> 
 	<tr> 
 				<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">Ca</td> 
 				<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">589.8</td> 
 				<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">1145.4</td> 
 				<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">4912.4</td> 
 				<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">6490.6</td> 
 				<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">8153.0</td> 
 				<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">10495.7</td> 
 				<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">12272.9</td> </tr> 
 	<tr> 
 				<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">Sc</td> 
 				<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">633.1</td> 
 				<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">1235.0</td> 
 				<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">2388.7</td> 
 				<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">7090.6</td> 
 				<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">8842.9</td> 
 				<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">10679.0</td> 
 				<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">13315.0</td> </tr> 
 	<tr> 
 				<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">Ga</td> 
 				<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">578.8</td> 
 				<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">1979.4</td> 
 				<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">2964.6</td> 
 				<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">6180</td> 
 				<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">8298.7</td> 
 				<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">10873.9</td> 
 				<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">13594.8</td> </tr> 
 	<tr> 
 				<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">Ge</td> 
 				<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">762.2</td> 
 				<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">1537.5</td> 
 				<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">3302.1</td> 
 				<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">4410.6</td> 
 				<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">9021.4</td> 
 				<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">Not available</td> 
 				<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">Not available</td> </tr> 
 	<tr> 
 				<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">As</td> 
 				<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">944.5</td> 
 				<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">1793.6</td> 
 				<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">2735.5</td> 
 				<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">4836.8</td> 
 				<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">6042.9</td> 
 				<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">12311.5</td> 
 				<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">Not available</td> </tr> </tbody> </table> 

 טקסט זה מותאם מ <a href="https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/6-5-periodic-variations-in-element-properties">OpenStax Chemistry 2e, Section 6.5: Periodic Variations in Element Properties.</a></div>

כמות האנרגיה הנדרשת כדי להסיר את האלקטרון הקשור בצורה הרופפת ביותר מאטום גזי במצב הקרקע שלו נקראת אנרגיית היינון הראשונה שלו ...

Education

JoVE Core

כימיה

אחד

Periodic Properties of the Elements

תכונות מחזוריות של היסודות

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

מונחים ומושגים מרכזיים

ionization energy trends in the periodic table

Ionization energy is the energy needed to remove an electron from a gaseous atom or ion in its ground state. The first ionization energy, or IE1, removes the most loosely bound electron and forms a 1+ cation. The second ionization energy, IE2, removes the next electron, and each later ionization energy removes another electron from the atom or ion.

Ionization always requires energy, so these processes are endothermic. That means ionization energy values are always positive. In general, larger atoms have lower ionization energy because their outermost electrons are farther from the nucleus and easier to remove.

Across a period, first ionization energy generally increases as atomic number increases. Down a group, first ionization energy generally decreases as atomic number increases. The trend is useful, but there are some clear exceptions.

One exception appears when a new subshell begins. Boron has a lower first ionization energy than beryllium, even though boron has one more proton. This happens because s electrons are lower in energy than p electrons in the same shell, so the s electron in beryllium is harder to remove than the p electron in boron. The effect comes from penetration and shielding.

Another exception appears when a p subshell becomes more than half filled. Oxygen has a slightly lower first ionization energy than nitrogen. Removing one electron from oxygen reduces electron-electron repulsion in the 2p orbital and gives a more stable half-filled orbital.

Successive ionization energies always increase. It is harder to remove an electron from a cation than from a neutral atom because the positive charge pulls more strongly on the remaining electrons. It is even harder to remove an electron from a cation with a higher positive charge.

The large jump in successive ionization energies shows when core electrons begin to be removed. Core electrons are harder to remove than valence electrons. For example, scandium and gallium both have three valence electrons, so the sharp rise in ionization energy comes after the third ionization. The table of values for K, Ca, Sc, Ga, Ge, and As shows this pattern clearly.

Ionization Energy Trends in the Periodic Table

periodic classification of the elements

How Valence Electrons Shape the Periodic Table

The periodic table organizes elements by increasing atomic number, and it also shows why elements in the same group behave alike. As the electron configurations are placed into the table, a repeating pattern appears in the outer shells of atoms. These outer electrons are called valence electrons, and they play the biggest role in chemical reactions. They are the highest-energy electrons in an atom, so they are easier to lose or share than core electrons. Valence electrons also help determine...

ionization energy

Ionization energy is the energy needed to remove an electron from a gaseous atom or ion in its ground state. The first ionization energy, or IE1, removes the most loosely bound electron and forms a 1+ cation. The second ionization energy, IE2, removes the next electron, and each later ionization energy removes another electron from the atom or ion. Ionization always requires energy, so these processes are endothermic. That means ionization energy values are always positive. In general, larger...

atomic radii and effective nuclear charge

atomic-radii-and-effective-nuclear-charge

Periodic Trends in Atomic Size

Periodic trends in atomic size help explain why atoms get larger or smaller across the periodic table. Elements in the same group show similar chemical behavior because they have the same number and arrangement of valence electrons. Across a period, each new element adds one proton to the nucleus and one electron to the valence shell. Down a group, the number of valence electrons stays the same, but the principal quantum number increases by one. Atomic radius is not easy to define with perfect...

ionic radii

How Ionic Charge Changes Ion Size

Ionic radius describes the size of an ion. It changes when an atom gains or loses electrons. Cations are positive ions with fewer electrons than the parent atom, and they are smaller than the atoms they come from. Aluminum shows this pattern clearly. A neutral aluminum atom has a covalent radius of 118 pm, while Al3+ has an ionic radius of 68 pm. When electrons are removed from the outer valence shell, the remaining core electrons feel a stronger effective nuclear charge, or Zeff. That pull...

electron affinity

Electron Affinity Trends on the Periodic Table

Electron affinity is the energy change that happens when a gaseous atom gains an electron and becomes a negative ion, or anion. For many elements, this process releases energy, so the electron affinity value is negative. For some elements, energy must be added instead, so the value is positive. Electron affinity also applies when more than one electron is added. The second electron affinity is the energy change for adding an electron to an anion to make a 2− ion. Later electron affinities...

alkali metals

Alkali Metals: Reactivity Trends

Alkali metals are Group 1 elements with one valence electron. They are soft, shiny metallic solids that are malleable, ductile, and good conductors of heat and electricity. Their melting points are unusually low for metals and drop as you move down the group. Density generally increases down the group, except for potassium. The trend in atomic size helps explain their behavior. Moving from lithium to cesium, each element has a higher principal quantum number, so the outer electron is farther...

halogens

Halogens: Trends and Reactions

Halogens are Group 17 nonmetals that show clear trends in structure and reactivity. At room temperature, fluorine and chlorine are gases, bromine is a liquid, and iodine is a solid. Astatine is highly unstable and radioactive, so most of its properties are still unknown because it has a very short half-life. Tennessine is a synthetic element that is also predicted to belong to this group. These elements do not usually exist as single atoms. Instead, they form diatomic molecules, which means...

noble gases

Noble Gases: Sources, Uses, and Reactions

Noble gases are the group 18 elements helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon. They were called “noble” because they were once thought to be nonreactive. That idea changed in 1962, when Dr. Neil Bartlett at the University of British Columbia showed that this assumption was not fully correct. These gases occur in very small amounts in the atmosphere. Some natural gas contains 1–2% helium by mass. Helium is separated from natural gas by removing the condensable components, which leaves...

key terms and concepts

Explore first and successive ionization energy, periodic trends, and key exceptions such as boron, oxygen, and the jump to core electrons.

Ionization Energy Trends in the Periodic Table | JoVE K12

chemistry

JoVE Core Chemistry brings general chemistry concepts to life using concise and easy-to-understand animated video lessons. Plus, in the scientist-in-action videos, we demonstrate classical and original research experiments performed in today's laboratories worldwide.

Physical Science

PS.PSc.1.6

Pennsylvania State Academic Standards

Chemical Reactions

3.2.9-12.C

Structure and Properties of Matter

3.2.9-12.A

Louisiana Student Standards for Science

High School

Matter And Its Interactions

HS-PS1-1

HS-PS1-2

ohios-learning-standards-and-model-curriculum

Ohio’s Learning Standards and Model Curriculum

Study Of Matter

Periodic trends of the elements

Structure And Properties Of Matter

Periodic Table

Tennessee Academic Standards

Matter and Its Interactions

CHEM1.PS1.12

Virginia  Standards of Learning

HIgh School

CH.2

CH.2.c

PS.2

PS.2.b

PS.4

PS.4.a

PS.4.b

Arizona Science Standards

HS.P1

HS.P1U1.1

HS+C.P1

HS+C.P1U1.1

new-jersey-student-learning-standards-for-science

New Jersey Student Learning Standards for Science

Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills

CHEM.5

CHEM.5.A

CHEM.5.C

CHEM.7

CHEM.7.A

Alabama Course of Study Science

9-12.C.1.1

9-12.C.1.1.e

motion-and-stability-forces-and-interactions

Motion and Stability: Forces and Interactions

9-12.C.2.2.f

9-12.PS.3.4.b

Next Generation Science Standards

Chemistry and Physics

IPC.7

IPC.7.B

new-york-state-science-learning-standards

New York State Science Learning Standards

HS. Structure and Properties of Matter

HS-PS1-1.

HS. Chemical Reactions

HS-PS1-2.

Georgia Standards of Excellence

SPS1.

Periodic Table Trends

SC1.

periodic-table-trends-atomic-radii-ionization-and-electronegativity

Periodic Table Trends: Atomic Radii, Ionization, and Electronegativity

Scientific Laws and Theories

Scientific Laws

In science, a law is defined as a concise, verbal or mathematical, statement that summarizes a vast number of experimental observations. ...

The Scientific Method

Chemistry is an empirical science. Scientists often pose questions to understand the chemistry in everyday life and seek answers to these questions. To ...

Classifying Matter by State

Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes it undergoes. Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Matter is all around us; the air, ...

Classifying Matter by Composition

Matter: Pure Substances and Mixtures
According to its composition, the matter can be classified into two broad categories &mdash; pure substances and ...

The Atomic Theory of Matter

The earliest recorded discussion of the basic structure of matter comes from ancient Greek philosophers. Leucippus and Democritus argued that all matter ...

Subatomic Particles

Dalton was only partially correct about the particles that make up matter. All matter is composed of atoms, and atoms are composed of three smaller ...

Elements: Chemical Symbols and Isotopes

A chemical symbol is an abbreviation used to indicate an element or an atom of an element. For example, the symbol for mercury is Hg. The same symbol is ...

Use models to explain how the scientific understanding of atomic structure has evolved.

PS.Chm.1.1

Radioactivity and Nuclear Equations

Nuclear chemistry is the study of reactions that involve changes in nuclear structure. The nucleus of an atom is composed of protons and, except for ...

Types of Radioactivity

The most common types of radioactivity are &#945; decay, &#946; decay, &#947; decay, neutron emission, and electron capture.
Alpha (&#945;) decay is the ...

Nuclear Stability

Protons and neutrons, collectively called nucleons, are packed together tightly in a nucleus. With a radius of about 10&#8722;15 meters, a nucleus is ...

Nuclear Binding Energy

The difference between the calculated and experimentally measured masses is known as the mass defect of the atom. In the case of helium-4, the mass defect ...

Radioactive Decay and Radiometric Dating

Radioactivity is a spontaneous disintegration of an unstable nuclide and is a random process, as all the nuclei in the sample do not decay simultaneously. ...

Nuclear Fission

Many heavier elements with smaller binding energies per nucleon can decompose into more stable elements that have intermediate mass numbers and larger ...

Nuclear Power

Controlled nuclear fission reactions are used to generate electricity. Any nuclear reactor that produces power via the fission of uranium or plutonium by ...

Nuclear Fusion

The process of converting very light nuclei into heavier nuclei is also accompanied by the conversion of mass into large amounts of energy, a process ...

Nuclear Transmutation

Nuclear transmutation is the conversion of one nuclide into another. It can occur by the radioactive decay of a nucleus, or the reaction of a nucleus with ...

Use models to compare nuclear reactions including alpha decay, beta decay and gamma decay; nuclear fusion and nuclear fission.

PS.Chm.1.2

Atomic Orbitals

An atomic orbital represents the three-dimensional regions in an atom where an electron has the highest probability to reside. The radial distribution ...

The Pauli Exclusion Principle

The arrangement of electrons in the orbitals of an atom is called its electron configuration. We describe an electron configuration with a symbol that ...

The Energies of Atomic Orbitals

In an atom, the negatively charged electrons are attracted to the positively charged nucleus. In a multielectron atom, electron-electron repulsions are ...

The Aufbau Principle and Hund's Rule

To determine the electron configuration for any particular atom, we can build the structures in the order of atomic numbers. Beginning with hydrogen, and ...

electron-configuration-of-multielectron-atoms

Electron Configuration of Multielectron Atoms

The alkali metal sodium (atomic number 11) has one more electron than the neon atom. This electron must go into the lowest-energy subshell available, the ...

Use models to explain how electrons are distributed in atoms.

PS.Chm.1.3

Periodic Classification of the Elements

The periodic table arranges atoms based on increasing atomic number so that elements with the same chemical properties recur periodically. When their ...

The Periodic Table

As early chemists discovered more elements, they realized that various elements could be grouped by their similar chemical behaviors. One such grouping ...

Atomic Mass

Atoms &mdash; and the protons, neutrons, and electrons that compose them &mdash; are extremely small. For example, a carbon atom weighs less than 2 ...

Molar Mass

The identity of a substance is defined not only by the types of atoms or ions it contains but by the quantity of each type of atom or ion. For example, ...

Use the Periodic Table as a model to predict the relative properties of elements based on the pattern of valence electrons in the outermost energy levels of atoms.

PS.Chm.2.1

Atomic Radii and Effective Nuclear Charge

The elements in groups of the periodic table exhibit similar chemical behavior. This similarity occurs because the members of a group have the same number ...

Ionic Radii

Ionic radius is the measure used to describe the size of an ion. A cation always has fewer electrons and the same number of protons as the parent atom; it ...

The amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from a gaseous atom in its ground state is called its first ionization energy ...

Electron Affinity

The electron affinity (EA) is the energy change for adding an electron to a gaseous atom to form an anion (negative ion).



This process can be either ...

Construct an explanation to infer the atomic size, reactivity, electronegativity, and ionization energy of an element based on its position in the Periodic Table.

Types of Chemical Bonds

Chemical bonding theories were pioneered by American chemist Gilbert&#xA0;N. Lewis. He developed a model called the Lewis model to explain the type and ...

Lewis Symbols and the Octet Rule

Chemical bonds are complex interactions between two or more atoms or ions, which reduce the potential energy of the molecule. Gilbert N. Lewis developed a ...

Ionic Bonding and Electron Transfer

Ions are atoms or molecules bearing an electrical charge. A cation (a positive ion) forms when a neutral atom loses one or more electrons from its valence ...

The Born-Haber Cycle

Lattice Energy&#xA0;

An ionic compound is stable because of the electrostatic attraction between its positive and negative ions. The lattice energy of a ...

trends-in-lattice-energy-ion-size-and-charge

Trends in Lattice Energy: Ion Size and Charge

An ionic compound is stable because of the electrostatic attraction between its positive and negative ions. The lattice energy of a compound is a measure ...

Covalent Bonding and Lewis Structures

Compared to ionic bonds, which results from the transfer of electrons between metallic and nonmetallic atoms, covalent bonds result from the mutual ...

Electronegativity

Whether a bond is nonpolar or polar covalent is determined by a property of the bonding atoms called electronegativity.&#xA0;

Electronegativity values of ...

bond-polarity-dipole-moment-and-percent-ionic-character

Bond Polarity, Dipole Moment, and Percent Ionic Character

Bond Polarity

The absolute value of the difference in electronegativity (&Delta;EN) of two bonded atoms provides a rough measure of the polarity to be ...

Analyze and interpret data to explain the mechanisms and properties of the two main types of intramolecular (ionic and covalent) bonds.

PS.Chm.3.1

Analyze the structure of atoms and isotopes.

Ionization Energy Trends in the Periodic Table

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