Name: predicting precipitation with ksp
Uploaded: 2020-09-24T15:06:51.000Z
Duration: 3 min 7 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

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Ohio’s Learning Standards and Model Curriculum

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Chemistry

Interactions Of Matter

Chemical reactions

Solubility Equilibria

נתרן כלורי נחשב כמסיס משום שכמויות גדולות ממנו יתמוסוו במים, אבל כשמוסיפים למים עופרת כלורית, רק כמות קטנה מת מוססת בעוד השאר נותר לא מסיס. המוצקים שנותרו מתקיימים לצד יוני העופרת והכלוריד שבתוך התמיסה. חלק מעופרת הכלוריד המוצקה ממשיך להתמוסס, בעוד חלק מהיונים שבתמיסה מתחברים מחדש ליצירת משקע.כשקצב ההמסה שווה לקצב השיקוע, שיווי משקל מסיסות מתבסס. ניתן לחשב את קבוע שיווי המשקל בעזרת ריכוזי שיווי המשקל של היונים, לפי תגובת ההמסה בה עופרת כלוריד מתפרקת ליון עופרת ולשני יוני כלוריד. אז, ניתן לחשב את קבוע שיווי המשקל באמצעות הכפלת הריכוז המולרי של יוני העופרת בריכוז המולרי של יוני הכלוריד בריבוע.משום שריכוז עופרת הכלוריד המוצקה נשאר קבוע, הוא לא נכלל בחישוב. קבוע שיווי משקל זה נקרא מכפלת המסיסות, ומסומן ב-Ksp. ב-25 מעלות צלזיוס, ה-Ksp של עופרת כלוריד הוא 11.7 כפול 10 בחזקת מינוס 5.ערך ה-Ksp מייצג עד כמה תרכובת יכולה להתמוסס ליצירת תמיסה מימית רוויה. בטמפרטורה נתונה, ה-Ksp של תרכובת הוא קבוע. המסיסות של תרכובת, במולים לליטר, המכונה מסיסות מולרית, משמשת לעיתים קרובות כדי לבטא את ריכוז המוצק המומס בתמיסה רוויה.מסיסותה של תרכובת יכולה להשתנות בהתאם לגורמים כמו pH התמיסה והאם נוכחים יונים אחרים. המסיסות המולרית של תרכובת, x, ניתנת לחישוב לפי ה-Ksp שלה בעזרת טבלת ICE. ריכוזי ההתחלה של יוני עופרת וכלוריד בתמיסה הם אפס.בשיווי משקל, הריכוז המולרי של יוני עופרת מיוצג ב-x, בעוד ריכוז יוני הכלוריד הוא 2x. הצבה לתוך משוואת שיווי המשקל של מכפלת המסיסות של עופרת כלורית שווה ל-x כפול 2x², ששווה ל-4x³. כיוון שה-Ksp של עופרת כלוריד הוא 11.7 כפול 10 בחזקת מינוס 5, הפתרון של x הוא 1.43 כפול 10 בחזקת מינוס 2 מולר.בתרכובות בעלות אותה סטויכומטריית פירוק, כמו עופרת כלוריד וסידן פלואוריד, כאשר מול מכל תרכובת מייצר 3 מול יונים מומסים, ניתן להשתמש בערכי ה-Ksp התואמים להשוואה בין המסיסויות שלהם.

<ol>
	<li>קליפורד, א. פ. "החיזוי של קביעות מוצר מסיסות1." כתב העת של החברה האמריקאית לכימיה 79, מס '20 (1957): 5404-5407.</li>
	<li>היל, ארתור א. "חוסר הקביעות של מוצר המסיסות". כתב העת של החברה האמריקאית לכימיה 32, מס '10 (1910): 1186-1193.</li>
	<li>ריינולדס, ג'ון פ. "ניסוי Ksp: מוצר המסיסות עבור בריום הידרוקסיד." כתב עת לחינוך כימי 52, מס '8 (1975): 521.</li>
</ol>

מסיסות שיווי משקל

<div style="direction:rtl">שיווי משקל במסיסות נוצרים כאשר ההתמוססות והשיקוע של מין מומס מתרחשים בקצבים שווים. שיווי משקל אלו עומדים בבסיס תהליכים טבעיים וטכנולוגיים רבים, החל מעששת ועד טיהור מים. הבנה של הגורמים המשפיעים על מסיסות התרכובת היא, לפיכך, חיונית לניהול יעיל של תהליכים אלה. סעיף זה מחיל מושגי שיווי משקל וכלים שהוצגו בעבר על מערכות הכוללות התמוססות ושיקוע. תוצר המסיסות נזכיר כי מסיסותו של חומר יכולה להשתנות כמעט מאפס (בלתי מסיס או מסיס בקושי) עד אינסוף (מתערבב). מומס בעל מסיסות סופית יכול להניב תמיסה רוויה כאשר מוסיפים אותו לממס בכמות העולה על מסיסותו, וכתוצאה מכך נוצרת תערובת הטרוגנית של התמיסה הרוויה והעודף, המומס הבלתי מומס. לדוגמה, תמיסה רוויה של כסף כלוריד היא כזו שבה הוקם שיווי משקל המוצג להלן. <img alt="Eq1" src="/files/ftp_upload/11417/11417_Equation_1.png" style="text-align: center; height: 50px;"> בתמיסה זו, עודף של AgCl מוצק מתמוסס ומתפרק לייצור יוני Ag+ ו- Cl– מימיים באותו קצב שבו היונים המימיים הללו מתאחדים ומשקעים ליצירת AgCl מוצק. מכיוון שכסף כלוריד הוא מלח מסיס בקושי, ריכוז שיווי המשקל של היונים המומסים שלו בתמיסה נמוכה יחסית. קבוע שיווי המשקל עבור שיווי משקל מסיסות כמו זה נקרא קבוע תוצר המסיסות, Ksp, במקרה זה <img alt="Eq2" src="/files/ftp_upload/11417/11417_Equation_2.png" style="text-align: center; height: 50px;"> נזכיר שרק גזים ומומסים מיוצגים בביטויי קבועי שיווי משקל, כך שה-Ksp אינו כולל מונח עבור AgCl הלא מומס. Ksp ומסיסות ה-Ksp של תרכובת יונית מעט מסיסה עשוי להיות קשור למסיסות הנמדדת שלה בתנאי שתהליך ההתמוססות כולל רק דיסוציאציה והמסה, למשל: <img alt="Eq3" src="/files/ftp_upload/11417/11417_Equation_3.png" style="text-align: center; height: 50px;"> במקרים כגון אלה, ניתן להפיק ערכי Ksp ממסיסות שסופקה, או להיפך. חישובים מסוג זה מבוצעים בצורה נוחה ביותר באמצעות מסיסות מולרית של תרכובת, הנמדדת במולות של מומס מומס לליטר תמיסה רוויה. חיזוי משקעים המשוואה המתארת את שיווי המשקל בין סידן פחמתי מוצק ליונים המומסים שלו היא: <img alt="Eq4" src="/files/ftp_upload/11417/11417_Equation_4.png" style="text-align: center; height: 50px;"> חשוב להבין ששיווי המשקל הזה נוצר בכל תמיסה מימית המכילה יוני Ca2+ ו-CO32–, לא רק בתמיסה שנוצרת על ידי הרוויה של מים עם סידן פחמתי. שקול, למשל, ערבוב של תמיסות מימיות של התרכובות המסיסות נתרן קרבונט וסידן חנקתי. אם ריכוזי הסידן ויוני הקרבונט בתערובת אינם מניבים מנת תגובה, Q, העולה על תוצר המסיסות, Ksp, אז לא יתרחשו משקעים. אם ריכוזי היונים מניבים מנה תגובה גדולה יותר מתוצר המסיסות, אז יתרחשו משקעים, שיורידו את הריכוזים הללו עד לשיווי המשקל (Q = Ksp). ההשוואה של Q ל-Ksp כדי לחזות משקעים היא דוגמה לגישה הכללית לניבוי כיוון התגובה שהוצגה לראשונה בשיעורים על שיווי משקל. למקרה הספציפי של שיווי משקל במסיסות: Q < Ksp: התגובה ממשיכה בכיוון קדימה (התמיסה אינה רוויה; לא נצפו משקעים) Q > Ksp: התגובה ממשיכה בכיוון ההפוך (התמיסה היא רוויה על; משקעים יתרחשו) טקסט זה מותאם מ<a href="https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/15-1-precipitation-and-dissolution">Openstax, Chemistry 2e, Section 15.1: Precipitation and Dissolution.</a></div>

שיווי משקל מסיסות נוצר כאשר המסה ומשקעים של מין מומס מתרחשים בשיעורים שווים. שיווי משקל זה עומד בבסיס רבים ...

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כימיה

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Acid-base and Solubility Equilibria

שיווי משקל חומצה-בסיס ומסיסות

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

מונחים ומושגים מרכזיים

predicting precipitation with ksp

Solubility equilibria explain how a dissolved ionic compound and its solid form can exist in balance. In a saturated solution, the solute dissolves and the ions precipitate at equal rates. These ideas matter in real settings such as tooth decay and water purification, where compound solubility affects the outcome.

A substance with finite solubility can form a saturated solution when more solute is added than the solvent can dissolve. The result is a heterogeneous mixture of the saturated solution and excess solid. Silver chloride is a classic example. In that equilibrium, solid AgCl dissolves into Ag+ and Cl− ions, and those ions also combine to form solid AgCl. For sparingly soluble salts like this, the dissolved ion concentration stays low.

The equilibrium constant for a solubility equilibrium is called the solubility product constant, or Ksp. Only gases and dissolved solutes appear in equilibrium expressions, so the undissolved solid is not included. For slightly soluble ionic compounds, Ksp can be related to measured solubility when dissolution involves only dissociation and solvation. In those cases, molar solubility is useful. It is the number of moles of dissolved solute in one liter of saturated solution.

Ksp also helps predict whether a precipitate will form. The equilibrium between solid calcium carbonate and its dissolved ions can exist in any aqueous solution that contains Ca2+ and CO32− ions. That is true even if the solution did not start with calcium carbonate as a solid. For example, when aqueous sodium carbonate and calcium nitrate are mixed, the ion concentrations determine the outcome.

The reaction quotient, Q, is compared with Ksp to test for precipitation. If Q does not exceed Ksp, no precipitation occurs. If Q is greater than Ksp, precipitation occurs and lowers the ion concentrations until equilibrium is reached again, when Q equals Ksp. In this way, Q and Ksp show whether a solution is unsaturated, saturated, or supersaturated.

Predicting Precipitation with Ksp

common ion effect

Common Ion Effect on Solubility

The common ion effect reduces the solubility of an ionic compound in a solution that already contains one of its ions. In aqueous solutions, this means less of the solid dissolves than it would in pure water. The effect follows the law of mass action and can be explained with Le Châtelier’s principle. Silver iodide shows this equilibrium clearly. When silver(I) ions or iodide ions are added, the dissolution equilibrium shifts left. More AgI precipitates, and the concentrations of dissolved Ag+...

buffers

Buffer Solutions and pH Stability

Buffer solutions are mixtures that help keep pH steady. A buffer contains an appreciable amount of a weak conjugate acid-base pair. It resists a change in pH when small amounts of a strong acid or a strong base are added. One common buffer uses a weak acid and its salt. Acetic acid and sodium acetate form this type of system, written as CH3COOH(aq) + CH3COONa(aq). Another buffer uses a weak base and its salt. A solution of ammonia and ammonium chloride, NH3(aq) + NH4Cl(aq), is an example. The...

calculating ph changes in a buffer solution

calculating-ph-changes-in-a-buffer-solution

Buffer pH After Acid or Base Addition

A buffer solution can resist sudden pH changes when a strong acid or strong base is added. It does not stop the pH from changing completely. The shift is usually small, as long as the addition stays within the buffer’s capacity. To find the new pH, first determine how the added acid or base changes the amounts of the buffer components. A buffer contains a weak acid and its conjugate base, or the reverse pair. These amounts are found with stoichiometric calculations, which track how much of...

buffer effectiveness

Buffer Capacity and pH Stability

Buffer solutions help keep pH fairly constant, but they do not work forever. Their resistance to pH change depends on having enough of a weak acid and its conjugate base, or a weak base and its conjugate acid, in the mixture. When too much strong acid or strong base is added, one part of the buffer pair is used up and the buffer action becomes weaker. Buffer capacity describes how much acid or base can be added to a fixed volume of buffer before the pH changes noticeably, usually by about one...

titration calculations: strong acid - strong base

titration-calculations-strong-acid-strong-base

pH at Key Points in Acid-Base Titration

pH at key points in a strong acid and strong base titration can be calculated from the amounts of acid and base present. The example uses 25.00 mL of 0.100 M HCl, a strong acid, and 0.100 M NaOH, a strong base. The pH changes as base is added, and each stage follows a different calculation. At 0 mL of titrant, the pH comes from the ionization of HCl. Because HCl is a strong acid, its ionization is complete. The hydronium ion molarity is 0.100 M, and the pH is found from that value. At 12.50...

titration calculations: weak acid - strong base

titration-calculations-weak-acid-strong-base

pH at Key Points in a Weak Acid Titration

pH at key points in a weak acid titration can be calculated for an acetic acid solution as sodium hydroxide is added. The example uses 25.00 mL of 0.100 M CH3CO2H titrated with 0.100 M NaOH. The reaction is shown as the weak acid reacts with the strong base. The initial pH is found from the acetic acid solution using the usual ICE approach. ICE means initial, change, and equilibrium, and it is a common way to set up equilibrium problems. The solution pH is calculated before any titrant is...

indicators

Acid-Base Color Changes

Acid-base indicators show color changes that help identify the pH of a solution. These are often weak organic acids or weak organic bases, and they respond to changes in hydronium ion concentration in dilute aqueous solution. Phenolphthalein is one example. It is colorless when the hydronium ion concentration is greater than 5.0 × 10^-9 M, which means the pH is below 8.3. In more basic solutions, where the hydronium ion concentration is lower, it turns red or pink. Methyl orange shows how an...

titration of a polyprotic acid

Polyprotic Acid Equivalence Points

Polyprotic acids have more than one ionizable hydrogen, so they lose protons in steps during titration. When the acid dissociation constants for those protons are far enough apart, the titration curve shows a separate equivalence point for each hydrogen that can ionize. Diprotic acids have two ionizable hydrogens and produce two equivalence points. Triprotic acids have three ionizable hydrogens and produce three equivalence points. Carbonic acid, H2CO3, is a weak diprotic acid. Carbonic acid...

solubility equilibria

Solubility equilibria explain how a dissolved ionic compound and its solid form can exist in balance. In a saturated solution, the solute dissolves and the ions precipitate at equal rates. These ideas matter in real settings such as tooth decay and water purification, where compound solubility affects the outcome. A substance with finite solubility can form a saturated solution when more solute is added than the solvent can dissolve. The result is a heterogeneous mixture of the saturated...

factors affecting solubility

Common Ion Effects on Solubility

The common ion effect lowers the solubility of an ionic compound in water when the solution already contains one of the ions made by that compound. It follows the law of mass action and can be explained with Le Châtelier’s principle. When a common ion is added, the dissolution equilibrium shifts toward the solid, so less of the salt stays dissolved. Silver iodide shows this effect clearly. If silver ions or iodide ions are added to a solution of AgI, the equilibrium shifts left and more AgI...

formation of complex ions

Ligands and Complex Ion Stability

Complex ions form when a central atom, often a transition metal cation, binds to ligands. Ligands are ions or molecules around the metal ion. They can be neutral molecules such as H2O or NH3, or ions such as CN− or OH−. In many cases, the ligands act as Lewis bases by donating a pair of electrons to the central atom. These reactions are part of coordination chemistry, which studies coordination complexes. When a metal ion reacts with one or more ligands to form a complex, the equilibrium...

precipitation of ions

Solubility Limits and Selective Precipitation

Solubility limits and selective precipitation explain when ions form a solid in water. The key idea is the balance between an insoluble compound and its dissolved ions. In aqueous solutions that contain calcium ions and carbonate ions, this equilibrium can exist even if the solution was not made by saturating water with calcium carbonate. When two soluble salts are mixed, such as sodium carbonate and calcium nitrate, the ion concentrations determine whether a precipitate forms. If the reaction...

qualitative analysis

Cation Identification by Precipitation Tests

Cation identification by precipitation tests uses selective reactions to find metal ions in a mixture. In qualitative analysis, different reagents are added step by step. Each reaction can produce a characteristic precipitate for a specific group of cations. Other steps, such as changing pH, heating the mixture to dissolve a precipitate again, or adding reagents that form complex ions, help separate ions within the same group. Group IV cations such as Ba2+, Ca2+, and Mg2+ are identified...

henderson-hasselbalch equation

Buffer pH with the Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation

The Henderson-Hasselbalch equation helps relate buffer pH to the weak acid in the solution. It comes from the ionization-constant expression for a weak acid. By rearranging that expression to solve for hydronium ion concentration, [H3O+], and then taking the negative logarithm of both sides, the equation can be written in terms of pH. In this form, pKa is defined as the negative logarithm of the weak acid ionization constant, or pKa = −log Ka. The equation shows the connection between pH, pKa,...

acid-base titration curves

Tracking pH During Acid-Base Titration

Acid-base titration uses pH changes to track how a solution responds as titrant is added. A titration curve is a graph of a solution property versus the amount of added titrant. In acid-base titrations, pH is the main property to follow because it changes in a predictable way with the solution makeup and helps show the endpoint. This pattern can be seen with a strong acid and strong base, a strong acid and weak base, or a strong base and weak acid. For example, 25.00 mL of 0.100 M HCl titrated...

key terms and concepts

Learn how Ksp, molar solubility, and the reaction quotient Q help predict when a saturated solution forms or when a precipitate will appear.

Predicting Precipitation with Ksp | JoVE K12

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Calculating the Equilibrium Constant

The equilibrium constant for a reaction is calculated from the equilibrium concentrations (or pressures) of its reactants and products. If these ...

Reaction Quotient

The status of a reversible reaction is conveniently assessed by evaluating its reaction quotient (Q). For a reversible reaction described by m A + n B ...

relative-strengths-of-conjugate-acid-base-pairs

Relative Strengths of Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs

Br&#248;nsted-Lowry acid-base chemistry is the transfer of protons; thus, logic suggests a relation between the relative strengths of conjugate acid-base ...

Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations

Being able to calculate equilibrium concentrations is essential to many areas of science and technology&#8212;for example, in the formulation and dosing ...

Strong Acid and Base Solutions

A strong acid is a compound that dissociates completely in an aqueous solution and produces a concentration of hydronium ions equal to the initial ...

The Small x Assumption

If a reaction has a small equilibrium constant, the equilibrium position favors the reactants. In such reactions, a negligible change in concentration may ...

Weak Acid Solutions

Few compounds act as strong acids. A far greater number of compounds behave as weak acids and only partially react with water, leaving a large majority of ...

le-chatelier-s-principle-changing-concentration

Le Chatelier's Principle: Changing Concentration

A system at equilibrium is in a state of dynamic balance, with forward and reverse reactions taking place at equal rates. If an equilibrium system is ...

Weak Base Solutions

Some compounds produce hydroxide ions when dissolved by chemically reacting with water molecules. In all cases, these compounds react only partially and ...

le-chatelier-s-principle-changing-volume-pressure

Le Chatelier's Principle: Changing Volume (Pressure)

For gas-phase equilibria, changes in the concentrations of reactants and products can occur with altered volume and pressure. The partial pressure, P, of ...

Mixtures of Acids

The pH of a solution containing an acid can be determined using its acid dissociation constant and its initial concentration. If a solution contains two ...

le-chatelier-s-principle-changing-temperature

Le Chatelier's Principle: Changing Temperature

Consistent with the law of mass action, an equilibrium stressed by a change in concentration will shift to re-establish equilibrium without any change in ...

Ions as Acids and Bases

Salts with Acidic Ions
Salts are ionic compounds composed of cations and anions, either of which may be capable of undergoing an acid or base ionization ...

Bronsted-Lowry Acids and Bases

The acid-base reaction class has been studied for quite some time. In 1680, Robert Boyle reported traits of acid solutions that included their ability to ...

Determining the pH of Salt Solutions

The pH of a salt solution is determined by its component anions and cations. Salts that contain pH-neutral anions and the hydronium ion-producing cations ...

acidbase-strengths-and-dissociation-constants

Acid/Base Strengths and Dissociation Constants

The relative strength of an acid or base is the extent to which it ionizes when dissolved in water. If the ionization reaction is essentially complete, ...

Polyprotic Acids

Acids are classified by the number of protons per molecule that they can give up in a reaction. Acids such as HCl, HNO3, and HCN that contain one ...

Water: A Bronsted-Lowry Acid and Base

The reaction between a Br&#248;nsted-Lowry acid and water is called acid ionization. For example, when hydrogen fluoride dissolves in water and ionizes, ...

Acid Strength and Molecular Structure

Binary Acids and Bases
In the absence of any leveling effect, the acid strength of binary compounds of hydrogen with nonmetals (A) increases as the H-A ...

pH Scale

Hydronium and hydroxide ions are present both in pure water and in all aqueous solutions, and their concentrations are inversely proportional as ...

Lewis Acids and Bases

In 1923, G. N. Lewis proposed a generalized definition of acid-base behavior in which acids and bases are identified by their ability to accept or to ...

Common Ion Effect

Compared with pure water, the solubility of an ionic compound is less in aqueous solutions containing a common ion (one also produced by dissolution of ...

Chemical reactions
• Types of reactions
• Kinetics
• Energy
• Equilibrium
• Acids/bases

Content elaboration: In the Physical Science course, coefficients were used to balance simple equations. Other representations, including Lewis structures and three-dimensional models, were also used and manipulated to demonstrate the conservation of matter in chemical reactions. In this course, more complex reactions will be studied, classified and represented with balanced chemical equations and three-dimensional models. Classifying reactions into types can be a helpful organizational tool for recognizing patterns of what may happen when two substances are mixed. Teachers should be aware that the common reaction classifications that are often used in high school chemistry courses may lead to misconceptions because they are not based on the actual chemistry, but on surface features that can be similar from one system to another (e.g., exchanging partners), even though the underlying chemistry is not the same. However, these classifications may be useful in making predictions about what happens when two substances are mixed. Some general types of chemical reactions are oxidation/reduction, synthesis, decomposition, single replacement, double replacement (including precipitation reactions and some acid-base neutralizations) and combustion reactions. Some reactions can fit into more than one category. For example, a single replacement reaction can also be classified as an oxidation/reduction reaction. Identification of reactions involving oxidation and reduction as well as indicating what substance is being oxidized and what is being reduced are appropriate in this course. However, balancing complex oxidation/reduction reactions is reserved for more advanced study. Organic molecules release energy when undergoing combustion reactions and are used to meet the energy needs of society (e.g., oil, gasoline, natural gas) and to provide the energy needs of biological organisms (e.g., cellular respiration). When a reaction between two ionic compounds in aqueous solution results in the formation of a precipitate or molecular compound, the reaction often occurs because the new ionic or covalent bonds are stronger than the original ion-dipole interactions of the ions in solution. Laboratory experiences (3-D or virtual) with different types of chemical reactions should be provided. Reactions occur when reacting particles collide in an appropriate orientation and with sufficient energy. The rate of a chemical reaction is the change in the amount of the reactants or products in a specific period of time. Increasing the probability or effectiveness of the collisions between the particles increases the rate of the reaction. Therefore, changing the concentration of the reactants, changing the temperature or the pressure of gaseous reactants, or using a catalyst, can change the reaction rate. Likewise, the collision theory can be applied to dissolving solids in a liquid solvent and can be used to explain why reactions are more likely to occur between reactants in the aqueous or gaseous state than between solids. The rate at which a substance dissolves should not be confused with the amount of solute that can dissolve in a given amount of solvent (solubility). Mathematical treatment of reaction rates is reserved for more advanced study. Computer simulations can help visualize reactions from the perspective of the kinetic-molecular theory. In middle school, the differences between potential and kinetic energy and the particle nature of thermal energy were introduced. For chemical systems, potential energy is in the form of chemical energy and kinetic energy is in the form of thermal energy. The total amount of chemical energy and/or thermal energy in a system is impossible to measure. However, the energy change of a system can be calculated from measurements (mass and change in temperature) from calorimetry experiments in the laboratory. Conservation of energy is an important component of calorimetry equations. Thermal energy is the energy of a system due to the movement of its particles. The thermal energy of an object depends upon the temperature and chemical composition. Some materials require little energy to change their temperature and other materials require a great deal to change their temperature by the same amount. Specific heat is a measure of how much energy is needed to change the temperature of a specific mass of material a specific amount. Specific heat values can be used to calculate the thermal energy change, the temperature (initial, final or change in) or mass of a material in calorimetry. Water has a particularly high specific heat capacity, which is important in regulating Earth's temperature. As studied in middle school, chemical energy is the potential energy associated with chemical systems. Chemical reactions involve valence electrons forming bonds to yield more stable products with lower energies. Energy is required to break interactions and bonds between the reactant atoms and energy is released when an interaction or bond is formed between the atoms in the products. Molecules with weak bonds (e.g., ATP) are less stable and tend to react to produce more stable products, releasing energy in the process. Generally, energy is transferred out of the system (exothermic) when the products have stronger bonds than the reactants and is transferred into the system (endothermic) when the reactants have stronger bonds than the products. Predictions of the energy requirements (endothermic or exothermic) of a reaction can be made given a table of bond energies. Graphic representations can be drawn and interpreted to represent the energy changes during a reaction. The role of energy in determining the spontaneity of chemical reactions is dealt with conceptually in this course. Entropy and its influence on the spontaneity of reactions are reserved for more advanced study. All reactions are reversible to a degree and many reactions do not proceed completely toward products but appear to stop progressing before the reactants are all used up. At this point, the amounts of the reactants and the products appear to be constant and the reaction can be said to have reached dynamic equilibrium. Dynamic equilibrium means the rate of the reverse reaction is equal to the rate of the forward reaction so there is no apparent change in the reaction. If a chemical system at equilibrium is disturbed by a change in the conditions of the system (e.g., increase or decrease in the temperature, pressure on gaseous equilibrium systems, concentration of a reactant or product), then the equilibrium system will respond by shifting to a new equilibrium state, reducing the effect of the change (Le Chatelier's Principle). If products are removed as they are formed during a reaction, then the equilibrium position of the system is forced to shift to favor the products. In this way, an otherwise unfavorable reaction can be made to occur. Mathematical treatment of equilibrium reactions is reserved for advanced study. Computer simulations can help visualize the progression of a reaction to dynamic equilibrium and the continuation of both the forward and reverse reactions after equilibrium has been attained. Properties of acids and bases and the ranges of the pH scale were introduced in Physical Science. In this course, the structural features of molecules are explored to further understand acids and bases. Acids often result when hydrogen is covalently bonded to an electronegative element and is easily dissociated from the rest of the molecule to bind with water to form a hydronium ion (H3O+). The acidity of an aqueous solution can be expressed as pH, where pH can be calculated from the concentration of the hydronium ion. Bases are likely to dissociate in water to form a hydroxide ion. Acids can react with bases to form a salt and water. Such neutralization reactions can be studied quantitatively by performing titration experiments.

Predicting Precipitation with Ksp

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