Name: ductile material stress-strain stages
Uploaded: 2024-03-07T13:22:36.000Z
Duration: 1 min 24 s
Channel: JoVE

כאשר דגימה נתונה להעמסה, האורך עולה תחילה באופן ליניארי בקצב איטי, וכתוצאה מכך נוצר קו ישר ראשוני עם שיפוע תלול בדיאגרמת המתח.
עם הגעתו לערך לחץ קריטי, הדגימה עוברת עיוות משמעותי עם עלייה מינימלית בעומס המופעל, בעיקר בשל לחצי גזירה הגורמים להחלקה לאורך משטחים אלכסוניים.
עם הגדלת העומס, קוטר החומר מצטמצם בנקודה המכונה – צוואר. לאחר הצוואר, אפילו כמות קטנה של עומס מאריכה את הדגימה עוד יותר עד שהיא נקרעת.
מניבה היא תהליך שבו החומר מתחיל להתעוות באופן פלסטי. הלחץ שבו מתחילה התשואה נקרא כוח התשואה, בעוד שהלחץ המתאים לעומס המרבי הוא הכוח האולטימטיבי, והלחץ בעת הקרע הוא כוח השבירה.
דיאגרמת המתח-מאמץ של פלדה מבנית מראה מתח קבוע לאחר התשואה עקב התקשות מתח, אך הלחץ של אלומיניום עולה באופן לא ליניארי.
משיכות החומר נמדדת באחוזי התארכות או באחוז הקטנת שטח חתך. תחת דחיסה, עקומות המאמץ של חומרים רקיעים מתפצלות בזנים גבוהים יותר מכיוון שצוואר אינו מתרחש.

דיאגרמת מאמץ-מעוות - חומרים גמישים

Stress-Strain Diagram - Ductile Materials

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יחסי מאמץ-מעוות בחומרים רקיעים כגון פלדה מבנית או אלומיניום מורכבים ומתקדמים בכמה שלבים. כאשר דגימה נטענת, היא מציגה בתחילה עלייה באורך ליניארי, המתוארת על ידי קו ישר תלול בתרשים המאמץ-מעוות. זה מציין שהחומר מתעוות בצורה אלסטית ויחזור לצורתו המקורית לאחר פריקתו. עם זאת, כאשר מגיעים לערך מתח קריטי, מתחיל דפורמציה פלסטית. בשלב זה ניתן לראות עיוות משמעותי עם עלייה מועטה בעומס המופעל, בעיקר עקב מתחי גזירה המקלים על החלקה לאורך המשטחים האלכסוניים של החומר. ככל שהעומס גדל, יש ירידה בקוטר החומר בנקודה מסוימת, המכונה צוואר. לאחר הצוואר, אפילו תוספת עומס קלה מותחת משמעותית את הדגימה עד שהיא נקרעת.

בהקשר זה, חוזק תפוקה הוא העיוות הפלסטי הגורם למתח. חוזק אולטימטיבי הוא העומס המרבי שהחומר יכול לשאת לפני הצוואר, וחוזק השבירה הוא הלחץ המוביל לקרע. מעניין לציין שדיאגרמת מאמץ-מעוות של פלדה מבנית נשארת יציבה לאחר התשואה עקב התקשות מתיחה, בניגוד לאלומיניום, שרואה גידול במתח לא ליניארי לאחר תפוקה. לבסוף, משיכות, המעידה על דפורמציה פלסטית משמעותית לפני קרע, נמדדת על ידי אחוז התארכות או הפחתה בשטח החתך. תחת דחיסה, עקומות מתח-מתח של חומרים רקיעים מתפצלים במתח גבוה מכיוון שלא מתרחש תהליך צוואר. 
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כאשר דגימה נתונה להעמסה האורך עולה תחילה באופן ליניארי בקצב איטי, וכתוצאה מכך נוצר קו ישר ראשוני עם שיפוע תלול על ...

Education

JoVE Core

Mechanical Engineering

הנדסת מכונות

Unit 1

יחידה 1

Stress and Strain - Axial Loading

מאמץ ומעוות - העמסה צירית

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

מונחים ומושגים מרכזיים

ductile material stress-strain stages

Ductile materials such as structural steel and aluminium show a multi-stage stress-strain response. When a specimen is loaded, its length first increases linearly at a slow rate. This produces a steep straight line on the stress-strain diagram. That initial part shows elastic deformation, which means the material returns to its original shape after unloading.

When the stress reaches a critical value, plastic deformation begins. In this stage, the material changes shape a lot while the applied load increases only a little. Shearing stresses help this process by allowing slippage along oblique surfaces in the material.

As loading continues, the specimen may start to narrow in diameter. This is called necking. After necking begins, even a small increase in load can stretch the specimen greatly until it finally ruptures.

The diagram also identifies key strength values. Yield strength is the stress that starts plastic deformation. Ultimate strength is the maximum load the material can carry before necking. Breaking strength is the stress at rupture. Structural steel often shows a steady post-yield region because of strain-hardening, while aluminium shows a non-linear stress increase after yield. Ductility is the ability to undergo large plastic deformation before rupture, and it is measured by percent elongation or reduction in cross-sectional area. Under compression, the stress-strain curves of ductile materials differ at high strains because necking does not occur.

Ductile Material Stress-Strain Stages

normal strain under axial loading

Axial Stress and Strain in a Rod

Axial stress and strain in a rod describe how a material changes length when a force is applied along its axis. The force may stretch the rod or compress it. In mechanics of materials, this deformation is called normal strain. Normal strain is found by dividing the change in length by the original length. This gives a unitless ratio that shows how much the material deforms under load. A load-deformation diagram can show elongation, but it cannot predict how another rod will deform. When a...

stress-strain diagram

Tensile Test Data and Material Behavior

A stress-strain diagram shows how a material responds during a tensile test. It records the mechanical behavior of a cylindrical specimen as it is pulled by an increasing centric load. The specimen is carefully prepared before testing. Two gauge marks are inscribed on the central part of the specimen. The distance between these marks is the gauge length. As the load increases, the gauge length also increases. This change in length is called elongation. The elongation is measured for each load...

stress-strain diagram - ductile materials

Ductile materials such as structural steel and aluminium show a multi-stage stress-strain response. When a specimen is loaded, its length first increases linearly at a slow rate. This produces a steep straight line on the stress-strain diagram. That initial part shows elastic deformation, which means the material returns to its original shape after unloading. When the stress reaches a critical value, plastic deformation begins. In this stage, the material changes shape a lot while the applied...

stress-strain diagram - brittle materials

Brittle Material Failure Under Tension

Brittle materials such as glass, cast iron, and stone fail with very little change in elongation. Their breaking strength and ultimate strength are nearly the same, and the strain at rupture is low. In these materials, failure is usually driven by normal stress, so the break surface is typically perpendicular to the applied load. Brittle materials also show little or no necking. Necking is the local narrowing of a material’s cross section under stress. Another important feature is that many...

true stress and true strain

Stress-Strain Curves Beyond Yield

Stress-strain curves beyond yield show how ductile materials behave after they start to deform permanently. Engineering stress is found by dividing the load by the original, undeformed cross-sectional area. It is a useful approximation, but it can lose accuracy when strain becomes large. True stress gives a more exact picture of the same specimen under load. It is calculated by dividing the applied load by the instantaneous cross-sectional area during deformation. As the specimen stretches,...

hooke's law

Stress-Strain Limits in Materials

Stress-strain limits in materials explain how solids respond when force is applied. Stress is the applied force per area, and strain is the change in shape or size that results. In the elastic range, strain stays directly proportional to stress. The constant that connects them is called the modulus of elasticity, or Young's modulus. This linear behavior continues only up to the proportional limit. After that point, the stress-strain relationship becomes nonlinear. For ductile materials, this...

plastic behavior

Yielding and Strain-Hardening in Metals

Yielding and strain-hardening describe how a material changes when stress goes beyond the elastic range. Under elastic behavior, the stress disappears when the load is removed, and the material returns to its original shape. Once stress exceeds the yield point, yielding begins and permanent deformation, or plastic set, starts. The switch from elastic to plastic behavior depends on the peak stress and on how long the load stays in place before removal. A specimen that is loaded, unloaded, and...

fatigue

Fatigue Failure in Repeated Loading

Fatigue failure happens when materials rupture after repeated or fluctuating loads. The stress can be far below the material’s static breaking strength. Even ductile materials can fail in a brittle way under fatigue. This behavior matters in machines and structural parts that face repetitive or changing loads. One example is an unbalanced pump impeller that creates vibrations. Another is a thin steel rod or wire bent back and forth in the same spot until it breaks. The number of loading...

deformation of member under multiple loadings

deformation-of-member-under-multiple-loadings

Calculating Rod Stretch from Mixed Loads

Calculating rod stretch from mixed loads starts with breaking the rod into parts. This step is needed when the rod is made of different materials or has changes in cross-section. Each part has its own internal force, cross-sectional area, length, and modulus of elasticity. These values are used to find the deformation of the full rod. For a member with a variable cross-section, the strain is not constant. Instead, it changes with position along the rod. The deformation of a small element is...

statically indeterminate problem solving

Axial Rod Reactions with Redundant Support

Axial rod reactions with a redundant support are found by combining equilibrium with deformation. The structure here uses two cylindrical rods, one steel and one brass, joined at point B and held by rigid supports at points A and C. The goal is to determine the reactions at A and C and the deflection at B. This setup is statically indeterminate because the supports create more unknown reactions than the equilibrium equations can solve. Statics alone is not enough to find every internal force...

thermal strain

Thermal Expansion of a Free Rod

Thermal strain describes how a structure changes length when temperature changes. It is important in real-world design because structures do not always stay at one temperature. Temperature shifts can affect how they behave and how long they last. A simple example is a homogeneous rod with a uniform cross-section resting freely on a flat horizontal surface. When the rod is heated, it elongates. The amount of elongation depends on the temperature change and the rod’s original length. This...

temperature dependent deformation

Thermal Stress in a Composite Rod

A steel-and-brass composite rod can build stress when temperature changes while both ends are restrained. The rod is nonhomogeneous, so its two sections respond differently. To find the compressive load, the problem is treated as statically indeterminate, which means the force cannot be found from equilibrium alone. The analysis begins by disconnecting one support so the rod can expand or contract freely under the temperature change. An unknown force is then applied at the free end. That force...

poisson's ratio

Material Strain Under Axial Loading

Poisson's ratio describes how a material changes shape when it is pulled or compressed along one direction. It links the strain in the direction of the force to the strain that happens sideways. When a slender bar is loaded axially, it stretches along the load and contracts laterally. Poisson's ratio is defined as the negative ratio of lateral contraction to axial elongation. The negative sign is used because the two strains usually have opposite signs. This keeps the ratio positive and makes...

generalized hooke's law

Multiaxial Stress and Strain Relation

Multiaxial stress and strain describe how an isotropic material responds when forces act along more than one direction. A cube-shaped sample under normal stresses on the three coordinate axes can change into a rectangular parallelepiped. Even after this deformation, the sides remain equal, and normal strain appears along the coordinate axes. The strain components are found from the stress components by studying each stress effect one at a time. The separate effects are then combined using the...

bulk modulus

Volume Change Under Hydrostatic Pressure

Bulk modulus describes how much a material resists a uniform squeeze. It links a change in pressure to the relative change in volume. For high school students, it is easiest to think of it as a measure of how hard it is to compress a material evenly from all sides. The idea becomes clearer when an isotropic material element is treated as a cube with unit volume. When normal stresses act on the cube, it deforms into a rectangular parallelepiped and its volume changes. The difference between the...

shearing strain

Shear Modulus and Angular Change

Shearing strain is the angular change that happens in a cubic element when it is loaded by shearing stress. Under this stress, the cube can change into an oblique parallelepiped without creating normal strains. If the cube is acted on only by shearing stress, its shape can shift strongly into a rhomboid. The amount of shearing strain is considered positive when the angle between the axes becomes smaller. This change in angle shows the direct effect of shear on the material. The deformation can...

relation between poisson's ratio, modulus of elasticity and modulus of rigidity

relation-between-poisson-s-ratio-modulus-elasticity-modulus

Axial Load Effects on Shear Strain

Axial load effects on shear strain are shown by how a slender bar deforms under tension or compression. When the bar is loaded along its axis, it changes in both the axial direction and the transverse direction. A small cubic element inside the bar can turn into a rectangular parallelepiped or a rhombus, depending on how it is oriented. This change in shape creates shearing strain, which is the distortion caused when angles in a material change. Axial loading produces both normal strain and...

saint-venant's principle

Load Effects Away from the Ends

Saint-Venant's principle describes how stress changes in a structural member when a load is applied. It shows that the exact way a load is placed matters most near the point of application. Farther away from that point, the stress pattern becomes much less dependent on how the load was applied. A simple example uses a member with plates on both ends. When the loads are applied at the center of the plates, the plates move toward each other without rotating. The member shortens in length and...

stress concentrations

Stress at Holes and Fillets

Stress can become much higher near holes and abrupt changes in shape within a structural member. These discontinuities create localized stress that may exceed the average stress in the part. For flat bars, the stress distribution can be measured experimentally with a photoelastic method. This approach is used for bars with a circular hole or with changing widths joined by fillets. The results depend on geometric ratios, such as the hole radius to the smaller width for a circular hole. For...

residual stresses

Residual Stresses After Welding and Cooling

Residual stresses are stresses that remain in a structure after the original load or heat source is removed. They often form when different parts of a material undergo uneven plastic deformation, which means permanent shape change. A rod stretched past its yield point is one example. It will not return to its original length, and some stress stays inside even after the load is gone. These stresses can also develop during welding. Heat changes the material during the weld and can cause plastic...

key terms and concepts

Explore how ductile materials like steel and aluminium deform through elastic, plastic, and necking stages, plus yield, ultimate, and breaking strength.

Ductile Material Stress-Strain Stages | JoVE K12

JoVE Core Mechanical Engineering offers concise, easy-to-understand animated videos covering key topics such as equilibrium, forces, truss analysis, and structural mechanics. Explore their real-world applications, and witness these concepts in action through scientist-led experiments.

mechanical engineering

Ductile Material Stress-Strain Stages

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