Name: how bias shapes social group behavior
Uploaded: 2020-02-12T11:07:45.000Z
Duration: 2 min 55 s
Channel: JoVE

In un contesto sociale, le persone possono interagire con gli altri in base alle loro caratteristiche più distintive, come l'età, il sesso o la razza. Di conseguenza, si può valutare rapidamente un'altra persona nel suo insieme, come un costrutto della categorizzazione di gruppo.

Tuttavia, questo processo può portare a pregiudizi sfavorevoli. Un tipo, gli stereotipi, sono credenze mentali che sono eccessivamente generalizzate al gruppo. Ad esempio, si ritiene che gli anziani siano più deboli e meno competenti dei giovani adulti.

Nutrire uno stereotipo su un gruppo può portare al pregiudizio, un atteggiamento ingiustificabile nei confronti di qualcuno in base alla sua appartenenza al gruppo. Interiorizzando gli stereotipi negativi sugli anziani, una persona può immediatamente non amare il suo nuovo vicino più anziano anche prima di conoscerlo.

In molti casi, un individuo potrebbe non essere consapevole dei propri pregiudizi. Al contrario, creano associazioni negative automatiche, che possono essere dimostrate attraverso il test di associazione implicita. Questa attività al computer misura la velocità con cui qualcuno mette in relazione i membri di un gruppo con immagini e parole positive o negative.

Ad esempio, durante un blocco di prove, il partecipante può vedere l'immagine di un volto giovane o vecchio. Con le dita sui tasti "E" e "I", viene chiesto loro di classificare, nel modo più rapido e accurato possibile, l'immagine nella categoria sinistra o destra.

In un altro blocco di prove, le combinazioni sono invertite: ora cattivo/giovane e buono/vecchio vengono accoppiati insieme quando appaiono le immagini.

Se i partecipanti ordinano più velocemente durante le prove buone/giovani rispetto alle buone/vecchie, possono avere un pregiudizio inconscio nei confronti degli anziani, poiché le risposte più lente vengono interpretate per riflettere associazioni più difficili.

Poiché le persone tendono a provare un tale pregiudizio nei confronti di un gruppo con cui non hanno familiarità, possono ridurre i loro atteggiamenti negativi formando relazioni con persone di gruppi diversi.

Altrimenti, il pregiudizio, sia conscio che inconscio, può alimentare la discriminazione, un'azione negativa nei confronti di un gruppo e dei suoi membri.

Ad esempio, anche se entrambi i candidati sono ugualmente qualificati per un lavoro, un datore di lavoro può decidere di assumere il candidato più giovane rispetto a uno più anziano esclusivamente in base alla sua età. Questo caso è una forma di discriminazione basata sull'età.

Mentre alcune forme di pregiudizio e discriminazione sono culturalmente accettabili e continuano a persistere, la maggioranza può scegliere di identificare gli altri per il contenuto del loro carattere piuttosto che etichettarli con la loro copertura.

Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. (1998). Misurare le differenze individuali nella cognizione implicita: il test di associazione implicita. Giornale di personalità e psicologia sociale, 74, 1464.

stereotipi, pregiudizio e discriminazione

Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination

Humans are very diverse and although we share many similarities, we also have many differences. The social groups we belong to help form our identities (Tajfel, 1974). These differences may be difficult for some people to reconcile, which may lead to prejudice toward people who are different. Prejudice is a negative attitude and feeling toward an individual based solely on one&rsquo;s membership in a particular social group (Allport, 1954; Brown, 2010). Prejudice is common against people who are members of an unfamiliar cultural group. Thus, certain types of education, contact, interactions, and building relationships with members of different cultural groups can reduce the tendency toward prejudice. In fact, simply imagining interacting with members of different cultural groups might affect prejudice. Indeed, when experimental participants were asked to imagine themselves positively interacting with someone from a different group, this led to an increased positive attitude toward the other group and an increase in positive traits associated with the other group. Furthermore, imagined social interaction can reduce anxiety associated with inter-group interactions (Crisp &amp; Turner, 2009). What are some examples of social groups that you belong to that contribute to your identity? Social groups can include gender, race, ethnicity, nationality, social class, religion, sexual orientation, profession, and many more. And, as is true for social roles, you can simultaneously be a member of more than one social group. An example of prejudice is having a negative attitude toward people who are not born in the United States. Although people holding this prejudiced attitude do not know all people who were not born in the United States, they dislike them due to their status as foreigners.

Can you think of a prejudiced attitude you have held toward a group of people? How did your prejudice develop? Prejudice often begins in the form of a stereotype&mdash;that is, a specific belief or assumption about individuals based solely on their membership in a group, regardless of their individual characteristics. Stereotypes become overgeneralized and applied to all members of a group. For example, someone holding prejudiced attitudes toward older adults, may believe that older adults are slow and incompetent (Cuddy, Norton, &amp; Fiske, 2005; Nelson, 2004). We cannot possibly know each individual person of advanced age to know that all older adults are slow and incompetent. Therefore, this negative belief is overgeneralized to all members of the group, even though many of the individual group members may in fact be spry and intelligent.

Another example of a well-known stereotype involves beliefs about racial differences among athletes. As Hodge, Burden, Robinson, and Bennett (2008) point out, Black male athletes are often believed to be more athletic, yet less intelligent, than their White male counterparts. These beliefs persist despite a number of high profile examples to the contrary. Sadly, such beliefs often influence how these athletes are treated by others and how they view themselves and their own capabilities. Whether or not you agree with a stereotype, stereotypes are generally well-known within in a given culture (Devine, 1989).

Sometimes people will act on their prejudiced attitudes toward a group of people, and this behavior is known as discrimination. Discrimination is negative action toward an individual as a result of one&rsquo;s membership in a particular group (Allport, 1954; Dovidio &amp; Gaertner, 2004). As a result of holding negative beliefs (stereotypes) and negative attitudes (prejudice) about a particular group, people often treat the target of prejudice poorly, such as excluding older adults from their circle of friends. An example of a psychologist experiencing gender discrimination is found in the life and studies of Mary Whiton Calkins. Calkins was given special permission to attend graduate seminars at Harvard (at that time in the late 1880s, Harvard did not accept women) and at one point was the sole student of the famous psychologist William James. She passed all the requirements needed for a PhD and was described by psychologist Hugo M&uuml;nsterberg as &ldquo;one of the strongest professors of psychology in this country.&rdquo; However, Harvard refused to grant Calkins a PhD because she was a woman (Harvard University, 2019).&nbsp;Have you ever been the target of discrimination? If so, how did this negative treatment make you feel?

The discussion of stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination most often uses negative and problematic thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.&nbsp;However, people can hold positive thoughts, feelings, and behaviors toward individuals based on group membership; for example, they would show preferential treatment for people who are like themselves&mdash;that is, who share the same gender, race, or favorite sports team.

Types of Prejudice and Discrimination 

When we meet strangers we automatically process three pieces of information about them: their race, gender, and age (Ito &amp; Urland, 2003). Why are these aspects of an unfamiliar person so important? Why don&rsquo;t we instead notice whether their eyes are friendly, whether they are smiling, their height, the type of clothes they are wearing? Although these secondary characteristics are important in forming a first impression of a stranger, the social categories of race, gender, and age provide a wealth of information about an individual. This information, however, often is based on stereotypes. We may have different expectations of strangers depending on their race, gender, and age. What stereotypes and prejudices do you hold about people who are from a race, gender, and age group different from your own? Find out your implicit associations by taking an Implicit Association Test <a href="https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/" target="_blank">here</a>!

Racism 

Racism is prejudice and discrimination against an individual based solely on one&rsquo;s membership in a specific racial group (such as toward African Americans, Asian Americans, Latinos, Native Americans, European Americans). What are some stereotypes of various racial or ethnic groups? Research suggests cultural stereotypes for Asian Americans include cold, sly, and intelligent; for Latinos, cold and unintelligent; for European Americans, cold and intelligent; and for African Americans, aggressive, athletic, and more likely to be law breakers (Devine &amp; Elliot, 1995; Fiske, Cuddy, Glick, &amp; Xu, 2002; Sommers &amp; Ellsworth, 2000; Dixon &amp; Linz, 2000).

Racism exists for many racial and ethnic groups. For example, Blacks are significantly more likely to have their vehicles searched during traffic stops than Whites, particularly when Blacks are driving in predominately White neighborhoods, (a phenomenon often termed &ldquo;DWB,&rdquo; or &ldquo;driving while Black.&rdquo;; Rojek, Rosenfeld, &amp; Decker, 2012).

Mexican Americans and other Latino groups also are targets of racism from the police and other members of the community. For example, when purchasing items with a personal check, Latino shoppers are more likely than White shoppers to be asked to show formal identification (Dovidio et al., 2010).

In one case of alleged harassment by the police, several East Haven, Connecticut, police officers were arrested on federal charges due to reportedly continued harassment and brutalization of Latinos. When the accusations came out, the mayor of East Haven was asked, &ldquo;What are you doing for the Latino community today?&rdquo; The Mayor responded, &ldquo;I might have tacos when I go home, I&rsquo;m not quite sure yet&rdquo; (&ldquo;East Haven Mayor,&rdquo; 2012). This statement undermines the important issue of racial profiling and police harassment of Latinos, while belittling Latino culture by emphasizing an interest in a food product stereotypically associated with Latinos.

Racism is prevalent toward many other groups in the United States including Native Americans, Arab Americans, Jewish Americans, and Asian Americans. Have you witnessed racism toward any of these racial or ethnic groups? Are you aware of racism in your community?

One reason modern forms of racism, and prejudice in general, are hard to detect is related to the dual attitudes model (Wilson, Lindsey, &amp; Schooler, 2000). Humans have two forms of attitudes: explicit attitudes, which are conscious and controllable, and implicit attitudes, which are unconscious and uncontrollable (Devine, 1989; Olson &amp; Fazio, 2003). Because holding egalitarian views is socially desirable (Plant &amp; Devine, 1998), most people do not show extreme racial bias or other prejudices on measures of their explicit attitudes. However, measures of implicit attitudes often show evidence of mild to strong racial bias or other prejudices (Greenwald, McGee, &amp; Schwartz, 1998; Olson &amp; Fazio, 2003).

Sexism

Sexism is prejudice and discrimination toward individuals based on their sex. Typically, sexism takes the form of men holding biases against women, but either sex can show sexism toward their own or their opposite sex. Like racism, sexism may be subtle and difficult to detect. Common forms of sexism in modern society include gender role expectations, such as expecting women to be the caretakers of the household. Sexism also includes people&rsquo;s expectations for how members of a gender group should behave. For example, women are expected to be friendly, passive, and nurturing, and when women behave in an unfriendly, assertive, or neglectful manner they often are disliked for violating their gender role (Rudman, 1998). Research by Laurie Rudman (1998) finds that when female job applicants self-promote, they are likely to be viewed as competent, but they may be disliked and are less likely to be hired because they violated gender expectations for modesty. Sexism can exist on a societal level such as in hiring, employment opportunities, and education. Women are less likely to be hired or promoted in male-dominated professions such as engineering, aviation, and construction&nbsp;(Blau, Ferber, &amp; Winkler, 2010; Ceci &amp; Williams, 2011). Have you ever experienced or witnessed sexism? Think about your family members&rsquo; jobs or careers. Why do you think there are differences in the jobs women and men have, such as more women nurses but more male surgeons (Betz, 2008)?

Ageism

People often form judgments and hold expectations about people based on their age. These judgments and expectations can lead to ageism, or prejudice and discrimination toward individuals based solely on their age. Typically, ageism occurs against older adults, but ageism also can occur toward younger adults. Think of expectations you hold for older adults. How could someone&rsquo;s expectations influence the feelings they hold toward individuals from older age groups? Ageism is widespread in U.S. culture (Nosek, 2005), and a common ageist attitude toward older adults is that they are incompetent, physically weak, and slow (Greenberg, Schimel, &amp; Martens, 2002) and some people consider older adults less attractive. However, some cultures,&nbsp;including some Asian, Latino, and African American cultures, both outside and within the United States afford older adults respect and honor.

Ageism can also occur toward younger adults. What expectations do you hold toward younger people? Does society expect younger adults to be immature and irresponsible? How might these two forms of ageism affect a younger and older adult who are applying for a sales clerk position?

Homophobia 

Another form of prejudice is homophobia: prejudice and discrimination of individuals based solely on their sexual orientation. Like ageism, homophobia is a widespread prejudice in U.S. society that is tolerated by many people (Herek &amp; McLemore, 2013; Nosek, 2005). Negative feelings often result in discrimination, such as the exclusion of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people from social groups and the avoidance of LGBT neighbors and co-workers. This discrimination also extends to employers deliberately declining to hire qualified LGBT job applicants. Have you experienced or witnessed homophobia? If so, what stereotypes, prejudiced attitudes, and discrimination were evident?

Why Do Prejudice and Discrimination Exist? 

Prejudice and discrimination persist in society due to social learning and conformity to social norms. Children learn prejudiced attitudes and beliefs from society: their parents, teachers, friends, the media, and other sources of socialization, such as Facebook (O&rsquo;Keeffe &amp; Clarke-Pearson, 2011). If certain types of prejudice and discrimination are acceptable in a society, there may be normative pressures to conform and share those prejudiced beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. For example, public and private schools are still somewhat segregated by social class. Historically, only children from wealthy families could afford to attend private schools, whereas children from middle- and low-income families typically attended public schools. If a child from a low-income family received a merit scholarship to attend a private school, how might the child be treated by classmates? Can you recall a time when you held prejudiced attitudes or beliefs or acted in a discriminatory manner because your group of friends expected you to?

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This text is adapted from <a href="https://cnx.org/contents/Sr8Ev5Og@10.24:nhpI4cUs@13/12-5-Prejudice-and-Discrimination" target="_blank">OpenStax, Psychology. OpenStax CNX.</a>

Stereotipi, pregiudizio e discriminazione

Gli esseri umani sono molto diversi e, sebbene condividiamo molte somiglianze, abbiamo anche molte differenze. I gruppi sociali a cui apparteniamo aiutano a formare le nostre identità...

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how bias shapes social group behavior

Prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination are ways bias can shape how people think and act toward social groups. Social groups help form identity, and people can belong to many groups at once, including gender, race, ethnicity, nationality, social class, religion, sexual orientation, and profession. Differences can be hard for some people to accept, but education, contact, and relationships with other cultural groups can reduce prejudice. Even imagining a positive interaction with someone from another group can improve attitudes and lower anxiety.

Prejudice is a negative attitude or feeling toward a person because of group membership. A stereotype is a belief or assumption about a group that gets applied to everyone in that group, even when individual people are very different. For example, some people wrongly assume that older adults are slow and incompetent, or that Black male athletes are more athletic but less intelligent than White male athletes. These ideas are overgeneralized, yet they can still affect how people are treated and how they see themselves.

Discrimination is the behavior that follows prejudice. It means taking negative action toward someone because of group membership, such as excluding older adults from social circles. The transcript also gives the example of Mary Whiton Calkins, who completed the requirements for a PhD at Harvard but was denied the degree because she was a woman. People can also show positive bias, such as favoring people who are like themselves.

When meeting strangers, people often notice race, gender, and age first. These categories can shape first impressions because they are tied to stereotypes and expectations. A useful tool for exploring these hidden links is the Implicit Association Test, which measures implicit associations rather than only what people say they believe.

Racism is prejudice and discrimination based on race. The transcript describes stereotypes about several groups, including ideas about Asian Americans, Latinos, European Americans, and African Americans. It also gives real-world examples such as Black drivers being searched more often during traffic stops, Latino shoppers being asked for ID more often, and police harassment of Latinos in East Haven, Connecticut. These examples show how racism can appear in everyday settings and in law enforcement.

Modern racism is often hard to spot because people have both explicit attitudes and implicit attitudes. Explicit attitudes are conscious and controllable, while implicit attitudes are unconscious and less controllable. Many people report fair views, but tests of implicit attitudes can still show racial bias or other prejudice. This dual attitudes model helps explain why bias can persist even when people do not openly endorse it.

Sexism is prejudice and discrimination based on sex. It often appears as gender role expectations, such as expecting women to be caretakers, friendly, passive, and nurturing. Women who act assertively or self-promote may be seen as competent but also disliked, and they may be less likely to be hired. The transcript also notes that women are less likely to be hired or promoted in male-dominated fields such as engineering, aviation, and construction.

Ageism is prejudice and discrimination based on age. It usually targets older adults, who are often seen as incompetent, physically weak, slow, or less attractive, but it can also affect younger adults who may be viewed as immature or irresponsible. These expectations can shape treatment in settings like job interviews. Some cultures, including some Asian, Latino, and African American cultures, show respect and honor for older adults.

Homophobia is prejudice and discrimination based on sexual orientation. The transcript describes it as widespread in U.S. society and notes that it can lead to exclusion of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people from social groups, neighbors, and workplaces. People may also be denied jobs even when they are qualified. Prejudice and discrimination often continue because children learn them through socialization from parents, teachers, friends, media, and social norms. When a society accepts bias, people may feel pressure to conform, even in places such as schools that differ by social class.

How Bias Shapes Social Group Behavior

in- and out-groups

In-Group Bias and Scapegoating

In-group bias and scapegoating help explain how people react to groups they belong to and groups they see as different. An in-group is a group a person identifies with or feels part of. An out-group is a group a person does not belong to and sees as fundamentally different. People often use group membership as part of their identity and self-esteem. Gender, race, age, and social economic group can all serve as in-groups. For example, if a person is female, females are the in-group and males...

stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination

Prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination are ways bias can shape how people think and act toward social groups. Social groups help form identity, and people can belong to many groups at once, including gender, race, ethnicity, nationality, social class, religion, sexual orientation, and profession. Differences can be hard for some people to accept, but education, contact, and relationships with other cultural groups can reduce prejudice. Even imagining a positive interaction with someone from...

stereotype content model

Warmth and Competence in Stereotypes

The Stereotype Content Model explains how people judge social groups using two main ideas: warmth and competence. Warmth means a group’s perceived intent, or whether it seems likely to help or cause harm. Competence means the group’s ability to carry out that intent. Susan Fiske and colleagues first proposed this model, and it helps show why first impressions can shape behavior toward other people. The model places stereotypes into four main categories. A group can be low in warmth and low in...

robbers cave

Robbers Cave and Group Conflict

The Robbers Cave study shows how group conflict can grow when teams are forced to compete. In the 1950s, two boys’ groups at an Oklahoma summer camp, called the Rattlers and the Eagles, entered a week-long tournament. As the competition continued, their hostility grew into name-calling, fistfights, vandalism, and damage to property. The study also showed one way to reduce that tension. Researchers used superordinate goals, which are shared goals that groups can only reach by working together.

stereotype threat and self-fulfilling prophecies

stereotype-threat-and-self-fulfilling-prophecies

How Stereotypes Shape Behavior

Stereotypes can shape behavior through self-fulfilling prophecy and confirmation bias. A self-fulfilling prophecy happens when an expectation changes how someone acts, and that behavior helps make the expectation come true. When people hold stereotypes about others, they may treat them in ways that match those expectations. That treatment can then push the other person to act in the same way, which seems to confirm the stereotype. A classic study by Rosenthal and Jacobson in 1968 showed this...

key terms and concepts

Explore how stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination affect social groups, from racism and sexism to ageism, homophobia, and implicit bias.

How Bias Shapes Social Group Behavior | JoVE K12

JoVE Core Social Psychology offers a comprehensive learning experience on the principles of social behavior through concise, animated video lessons. The series explores key topics such as self-concept, social cognition, group dynamics, stereotypes, and relationships. It provides a structured foundation for understanding human behavior in social situations. Students gain insights into how individuals think, feel, and behave in social contexts while examining the psychological processes that influence interactions and judgments. By integrating theory with real-world applications, these lessons offer a clear and engaging approach to mastering essential concepts in social psychology.

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JoVE Core Psicologia Sociale mostra in modo pratico i fondamenti della nostra concezione della società. Attraverso 66 lezioni audiovisive concise e di facile comprensione, spieghiamo i concetti chiave del campo. Inoltre, in altri 25 video della sezione "Scienziati in azione", dimostriamo esperimenti di ricerca classici e originali eseguiti in laboratorio.

How Bias Shapes Social Group Behavior

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