Name: dna and rna in cells
Uploaded: 2023-04-30T18:28:47.000Z
Duration: 2 min 43 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Next Generation Science Standards

High School

Life Science

from-molecules-to-organisms-structures-and-processes

From Molecules to Organisms: Structures and Processes

HS-LS1-1

Nucleic Acids

Gli acidi nucleici sono polimeri di nucleotidi molecole composte da uno zucchero pentoso, una base contenente azoto e un gruppo fosfato. Esistono due tipi di acidi nucleici:l'acido desossiribonucleico, DNA e l'acido ribonucleico, RNA. Le loro strutture chimiche differiscono a seconda di quale zucchero pentoso e quali basi azotate contengono.

Lo zucchero pentoso nell'RNA è il ribosio, che ha un gruppo idrossile attaccato al carbonio-2. Lo zucchero nel DNA è desossiribosio, che ha solo un atomo di idrogeno ma non di ossigeno al carbonio-2. La base azotata è legata al carbonio-1 e il fosfato al carbonio-5.

Sia l'RNA che il DNA contengono le basi adenina, citosina e guanina;ma il DNA ha la timina, mentre l'RNA ha l'uracile. Nel DNA e nell'RNA, guanina e citosina formano coppie di basi complementari, tenute insieme da tre legami idrogeno. L'adenina e la timina formano coppie di basi nel DNA, mentre l'adenina e l'uracile si appaiano nell'RNA;entrambe le coppie sono tenute insieme da due legami idrogeno.

Vari enzimi DNA o RNA polimerasi catalizzano la polimerizzazione dei nucleotidi. Un legame fosfodiestere si forma fra un gruppo idrossile attaccato al carbonio-3 e il gruppo fosfato attaccato al carbonio-5 del nucleotide successivo. Questa reazione lascia un'estremità 5'non legata con un gruppo fosfato libero e un'estremità 3'non legata con un gruppo idrossile libero.

Quando appaiate con un filamento complementare, le due molecole sono antiparallele, il che significa che l'estremità 5'di un filo si appaia con l'estremità 3 dell'altra. I filamenti sono tenuti insieme da forze intermolecolari, fra cui effetti idrofobici, interazioni di van der Waals e legami idrogeno specifici che si formano fra le basi azotate. Il DNA è una doppia elica composta da due catene polinucleotidiche avvolte l'una attorno all'altra.

Al contrario, l'RNA si trova spesso come una molecola a filamento singolo. Tuttavia, l'RNA può legarsi ad un RNA o DNA complementare. Può anche esibire un appaiamento di basi complementari intra-filamento, il quale risulta in diversi tipi di strutture secondarie di RNA che hanno funzioni distinte all'interno della cellula.

acidi nucleici

Gli acidi nucleici sono le macromolecole più importanti per la continuità della vita. Portano con sé il progetto genetico della cellula e le istruzioni per il suo funzionamento.

DNA e RNA

I due principali tipi di acidi nucleici sono l'acido desossiribonucleico (DNA) e l'acido ribonucleico (RNA). Il DNA è il materiale genetico di tutti gli organismi viventi, dai batteri unicellulari ai mammiferi multicellulari. È nel nucleo degli eucarioti e negli organelli, nei cloroplasti e nei mitocondri. Nei procarioti il DNA non è racchiuso in un involucro membranoso.

L'intero contenuto genetico della cellula è il suo genoma, e lo studio dei genomi è la genomica. Nelle cellule eucariotiche, ma non nei procarioti, il DNA forma un complesso con le proteine istoniche per formare la cromatina, la sostanza dei cromosomi eucariotici. Un cromosoma può contenere decine di migliaia di geni. Molti geni contengono le informazioni per produrre proteine. Altri geni codificano per prodotti di RNA. Il DNA controlla tutte le attività cellulari “attivando” o “disattivando” i geni.

L'altro tipo di acido nucleico, l'RNA, è principalmente coinvolto nella sintesi proteica. Le molecole di DNA non lasciano mai il nucleo ma utilizzano invece un intermediario per comunicare con il resto della cellula. Questo intermediario è l'RNA messaggero (mRNA). Altri tipi di RNA- come rRNA, tRNA e microRNA- sono coinvolti nella sintesi proteica e nella sua regolazione.

Il DNA e l'RNA sono costituiti da monomeri chiamati nucleotidi. Ciascun nucleotide comprende tre componenti: una base azotata, uno zucchero pentoso (a cinque atomi di carbonio) e un gruppo fosfato. Ciascuna base azotata in un nucleotide è attaccata a una molecola di zucchero, a sua volta attaccata a uno o più gruppi fosfato. Le basi azotate, componenti importanti dei nucleotidi, sono molecole organiche e sono così chiamate perché contengono carbonio e azoto. Sono basi perché contengono un gruppo amminico che ha il potenziale di legare un idrogeno in più, diminuendo così la concentrazione di ioni idrogeno nel suo ambiente, rendendolo più basico. Ogni nucleotide nel DNA contiene una delle quattro possibili basi azotate: adenina (A), guanina (G), citosina (C) e timina (T). L'adenina e la guanina sono classificate come purine. La struttura primaria della purina è costituita da due anelli di carbonio-azoto. Citosina, timina e uracile sono classificati come pirimidine che hanno un singolo anello carbonio-azoto come struttura primaria. Ciascuno di questi anelli base di carbonio-azoto ha diversi gruppi funzionali ad esso collegati. In biologia molecolare, conosciamo le basi azotate con i loro simboli A, T, G, C e U. Il DNA contiene A, T, G e C; mentre l'RNA contiene A, U, G e C.

Lo zucchero pentoso nel DNA è il desossiribosio, mentre nell'RNA lo zucchero è il ribosio. La differenza tra gli zuccheri è data dalla presenza del gruppo ossidrile sul secondo carbonio del ribosio e dell'idrogeno sul secondo carbonio del desossiribosio. Il residuo fosfato si lega al gruppo ossidrile del carbonio 5′ di uno zucchero e al gruppo ossidrile del carbonio 3′ dello zucchero del nucleotide successivo, che forma un legame fosfodiestere 5′–3′.

Struttura a doppia elica del DNA

Il DNA ha una struttura a doppia elica. Lo zucchero e il fosfato si trovano all'esterno dell'elica, formando la spina dorsale del DNA. Le basi azotate sono impilate all'interno, come una coppia di gradini di una scala. I legami idrogeno legano le coppie tra loro. Ogni coppia di basi nella doppia elica è separata dalla coppia di basi successiva di 0,34 nm. I due filamenti dell'elica corrono in direzioni opposte, il che significa che l'estremità di carbonio 5′ di un filamento sarà rivolta verso l'estremità di carbonio 3′ del filamento corrispondente. Sono consentiti solo alcuni tipi di accoppiamento di basi: A può accoppiarsi con T e G può accoppiarsi con C. Questa è la regola della base complementare. In altre parole, i filamenti di DNA sono complementari tra loro.

RNA

L'acido ribonucleico, o RNA, è principalmente coinvolto nel processo di sintesi proteica sotto la direzione del DNA. L'RNA è solitamente a filamento singolo ed è costituito da ribonucleotidi legati da legami fosfodiestere.

Esistono quattro tipi principali di RNA: RNA messaggero (mRNA), RNA ribosomiale (rRNA), RNA di trasferimento (tRNA) e microRNA (miRNA). Il primo, l'mRNA, trasporta il messaggio del DNA, che controlla tutte le attività cellulari di una cellula. Se una cellula necessita di una determinata proteina, il suo gene si “accende” e l'RNA messaggero viene sintetizzato nel nucleo. La sequenza di basi dell'RNA è complementare alla sequenza codificante del DNA da cui è stato copiato. Nel citoplasma, l'mRNA interagisce con i ribosomi e altri macchinari cellulari.

L'mRNA viene letto in gruppi di tre basi note come codoni. Ogni codone codifica per un singolo amminoacido. In questo modo viene letto l'mRNA e viene prodotto il prodotto proteico. L'RNA ribosomiale (rRNA) è un costituente principale dei ribosomi su cui si lega l'mRNA. L'rRNA garantisce il corretto allineamento dell'mRNA e dei ribosomi. L'rRNA del ribosoma ha anche un'attività enzimatica (peptidil transferasi) e catalizza la formazione del legame peptidico tra due amminoacidi allineati. L'RNA di trasferimento (tRNA) è uno dei più piccoli dei quattro tipi di RNA, solitamente lungo 70-90 nucleotidi. Trasporta l'amminoacido corretto al sito di sintesi proteica. È l'accoppiamento delle basi tra il tRNA e l'mRNA che consente all'amminoacido corretto di inserirsi nella catena polipeptidica. I microRNA sono le molecole di RNA più piccole e il loro ruolo prevede la regolazione dell'espressione genica interferendo con l'espressione di determinati messaggi di mRNA.

Anche se l'RNA è a filamento singolo, la maggior parte dei tipi di RNA mostra un ampio accoppiamento di basi intramolecolari tra sequenze complementari, creando una struttura tridimensionale prevedibile essenziale per la loro funzione.

Questo testo è adattato da <a href="https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e/pages/3-5-nucleic-acids">Openstax, Biology 2e, Chapter 3.5: Nucleic Acids</a>.

Acidi nucleici

Gli acidi nucleici sono le macromolecole più importanti per la continuità della vita. Portano il progetto genetico della cellula e portano le istruzioni per il suo ...

Education

Didattica

JoVE Core

Cell Biology

Biologia cellulare

Unit 1

Unità 1

Biochemistry of the Cell

Biochimica della cellula

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

TERMINI E CONCETTI CHIAVE

dna and rna in cells

DNA and RNA are nucleic acids that help store and use genetic information in cells. They are key molecules in biology and are often studied together because they work as a pair in living systems.

Nucleic acids are built from repeating units called nucleotides. Each nucleotide has a sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. The order of these bases carries the genetic code.

There are two main nucleic acids: DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, and RNA, or ribonucleic acid. DNA usually stores genetic information, while RNA helps carry and use that information in the cell. Their roles make them essential for heredity and cell function.

DNA and RNA in Cells

the periodic table and organismal elements

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New York State Science Learning Standards

Structure and Function

HS-LS1-1.

Georgia Standards of Excellence

9-12

Biology

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Characteristics of Life

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Construct an explanation based on evidence for how the structure of DNA determines the structure of proteins, which carry out the essential functions of life through systems of specialized cells. [Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include identification of specific cell or tissue types, whole body systems, specific protein structures and functions, or the biochemistry of protein synthesis.]

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Develop and use a model to illustrate the hierarchical organization of interacting systems that provide specific functions within multicellular organisms. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on functions at the organism system level such as nutrient uptake, water delivery, and organism movement in response to neural stimuli. An example of an interacting system could be an artery depending on the proper function of elastic tissue and smooth muscle to regulate and deliver the proper amount of blood within the circulatory system.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include interactions and functions at the molecular or chemical reaction level.]

HS-LS1-2

DNA and RNA in Cells

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