Name: cell chemistry: water, ions, and molecules
Uploaded: 2023-04-30T18:28:47.000Z
Duration: 2 min 58 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

north-carolina-k-12-science-standard-course-of-study

NC K-12 Science Standard Course of Study

9-12

Biology

from-molecules-to-organisms-structures-and-processes

From Molecules to Organisms- Structures and Processes

LS.Bio.1.1

Chemistry of the Cell

Le cellule sono gli elementi costitutivi di base degli organismi viventi, sono composti prevalentemente da acqua, molecole organiche e ioni inorganici. L'acqua costituisce circa il 70 percento della cellula. Questo ambiente acquoso nel citoplasma è essenziale per la struttura della cellula e per molte delle reazioni che avvengono al suo interno.

L'acqua è una molecola altamente polare, quindi interagirà con altre molecole polari e ioni nella cellula, ma non con quelli non polari. L'ambiente idrofilo del citoplasma favorisce la formazione di strutture tridimensionali delle proteine, con amminoacidi non polari al centro e polari in superficie. Nel caso della formazione di membrane, i gruppi di teste polari dei fosfolipidi interagiscono con l'acqua.

Al contrario, le code non polari interagiscono fra loro creando una barriera idrofobica all'esterno della cellula. Il pH dei fluidi biologici nella cellula e nei suoi compartimenti è tamponato con precisione. Il pH del citoplasma è intorno a 7, 2 ed è regolato da molecole come gli ioni fosfato.

Al contrario, il pH nei lisosomi, compartimenti cellulari specializzati, è di circa 5. Questo perché i lisosomi contengono enzimi che funzionano in modo ottimale in ambienti acidi. Le molecole organiche nella cellula includono carboidrati, proteine, lipidi e nucleotidi.

Tutte queste varie macromolecole hanno una molteplicità di ruoli. I carboidrati sono una fonte primaria di energia per alimentare vari processi metabolici;tuttavia, la cellula può anche scomporre proteine e lipidi come carburante. Le proteine possono essere enzimi che catalizzano le reazioni, o possono contribuire alla struttura cellulare.

I lipidi sono una componente significativa delle membrane cellulari. Inoltre, queste macromolecole possono legarsi in modo covalente fra di loro per formare coniugati, come glicoproteine e glicolipidi, spesso presenti nelle membrane cellulari. I nucleotidi fungono da materiale genetico e si associano anche alle proteine per formare nucleoproteine, le quali impacchettano strettamente il DNA in una cellula.

Il nucleotide ATP è anche la fonte di energia per molti processi cellulari. Gli ioni inorganici fondamentali per la funzione cellulare includono sodio, potassio, magnesio, calcio, fosfato e cloruro. Benché questi ioni costituiscano meno dell'1 percento della massa cellulare, svolgono ruoli diversi all'interno della cellula.

Per esempio, gli ioni come il calcio sono usati per trasmettere segnali biologici in una cellula, mentre il magnesio è essenziale per l'attività catalitica di molti enzimi.

<ol>
	<li>Cooper GM. La cellula: un approccio molecolare. 2a edizione. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer Associates; 2000. Capitolo 2, La chimica delle cellule. Disponibile da: <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9884/">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9884/</a></li>
	<li>Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, et al. Biologia molecolare della cellula. 4a edizione. New York: Garland Science; 2002. I componenti chimici di una cellula. Disponibile da: <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26883/">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26883/</a></li>
	<li>Cooper GM. La cellula: un approccio molecolare. 2a edizione. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer Associates; 2000. La composizione molecolare delle cellule. Disponibile da: <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9879/">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9879/</a></li>
</ol>

chimica della cellula

La cellula è chimicamente composta da acqua, molecole organiche e ioni inorganici.

Acqua

La polarità della molecola d'acqua e il conseguente legame a idrogeno rendono l'acqua una sostanza unica con proprietà speciali intimamente legate ai processi della vita. La vita originariamente si è evoluta in un ambiente acquatico e la maggior parte della chimica cellulare e del metabolismo di un organismo avvengono all’interno del contenuto acquoso del citoplasma della cellula. Le proprietà speciali dell'acqua sono la sua elevata capacità termica e calore di vaporizzazione, la sua capacità di dissolvere le molecole polari, le sue proprietà coesive e adesive e la sua dissociazione in ioni che porta alla base del pH. Comprendere queste caratteristiche dell'acqua aiuta a chiarire la sua importanza nel mantenimento della vita.

Una delle proprietà importanti dell’acqua è che è una molecola polare: l’idrogeno e l’ossigeno all’interno delle molecole d’acqua (H_2O) formano legami covalenti polari. Sebbene non vi sia alcuna carica netta su una molecola d'acqua, la polarità dell'acqua crea una carica leggermente positiva sull'idrogeno e una carica leggermente negativa sull'ossigeno, contribuendo alle proprietà di attrazione dell'acqua. L'acqua genera cariche perché l'ossigeno è più elettronegativo dell'idrogeno, rendendo più probabile che un elettrone condiviso si trovi vicino al nucleo dell'ossigeno rispetto al nucleo dell'idrogeno, generando così la carica negativa parziale vicino all'ossigeno.

Come risultato della polarità dell’acqua, ciascuna molecola d’acqua attrae altre molecole d’acqua a causa delle cariche opposte tra le molecole d’acqua, formando legami idrogeno. L'acqua attrae o è attratta anche da altre molecole e ioni polari. Una sostanza polare che interagisce facilmente o si dissolve in acqua è idrofila. Al contrario, le molecole non polari come oli e grassi non interagiscono bene con l’acqua. Questi composti non polari sono idrofobici.

Molecole organiche

Proteine, carboidrati, acidi nucleici e lipidi sono le quattro principali classi di macromolecole biologiche - grandi molecole necessarie per la vita che sono costituite da molecole organiche più piccole. Le macromolecole sono composte da singole unità chiamate dagli scienziati monomeri che sono unite da legami covalenti per formare polimeri più grandi. Il polimero è più della somma delle sue parti: acquisisce nuove caratteristiche e porta ad una pressione osmotica molto inferiore a quella formata dai suoi ingredienti. Questo è un vantaggio importante nel mantenimento delle condizioni osmotiche cellulari. Un monomero si unisce ad un altro monomero con il rilascio di molecole d'acqua, portando alla formazione di un legame covalente. Gli scienziati chiamano queste reazioni di disidratazione o condensazione. Quando i polimeri si scompongono in unità più piccole (monomeri), utilizzano una molecola d'acqua per ciascun legame rotto da queste reazioni. Tali reazioni sono reazioni di idrolisi. Le reazioni di disidratazione e idrolisi sono simili per tutte le macromolecole, ma ciascuna reazione monomerica e polimerica è specifica per la sua classe. Le reazioni di disidratazione richiedono tipicamente un investimento di energia per la formazione di nuovi legami, mentre le reazioni di idrolisi tipicamente rilasciano energia rompendo i legami.

Carboidrati

I carboidrati sono un gruppo di macromolecole che costituiscono una fonte di energia vitale per la cellula e forniscono supporto strutturale alle cellule vegetali, ai funghi e a tutti gli artropodi tra cui le aragoste, i granchi, i gamberetti, gli insetti e i ragni. I carboidrati possono essere classificati in monosaccaridi, disaccaridi e polisaccaridi. Lo stoccaggio del glucosio, sotto forma di polimeri come l'amido o il glicogeno, lo rende leggermente meno accessibile al metabolismo; tuttavia, ciò impedisce che fuoriesca dalla cellula o che si crei un'elevata pressione osmotica che potrebbe causare un assorbimento eccessivo di acqua da parte della cellula.

Proteine

Le proteine sono una classe di macromolecole che svolge una vasta gamma di funzioni per la cellula. Aiutano nel metabolismo agendo come enzimi, trasportatori o ormoni e forniscono supporto strutturale. Gli elementi costitutivi delle proteine sono gli aminoacidi.

Lipidi

I lipidi sono una classe di macromolecole di natura non polare e idrofobica. I tipi principali includono grassi e oli, cere, fosfolipidi e steroidi. I grassi sono una forma di energia immagazzinata e sono noti anche come triacilgliceroli o trigliceridi. Il colesterolo è un tipo di steroide ed è un importante costituente della membrana plasmatica, dove aiuta a mantenere la natura fluida della membrana.

Acidi nucleici

Gli acidi nucleici sono molecole composte da nucleotidi che dirigono le attività cellulari come la divisione cellulare e la sintesi proteica. Esistono due tipi di acidi nucleici: DNA e RNA. Il DNA trasporta il progetto genetico della cellula e lo trasmette dai genitori alla prole. L'RNA è coinvolto nella sintesi proteica e nella sua regolazione.

Ioni inorganici

Gli ioni inorganici costituiscono meno dell'1% della massa cellulare ma sono fondamentali per la funzione della cellula. Quelli presenti in una cellula includono sodio, potassio, magnesio, calcio, fosfato e cloruro.

Questo testo è adattato da <a href="https://openstax.org/details/books/biology-2e">Openstax, Biology 2e, Unit 1: </a><a href="https://openstax.org/details/books/biology-2e">The Chemistry of Life</a>.

Chimica della cellula

La cellula è composta chimicamente da acqua, molecole organiche e ioni inorganici.
Acqua
La polarità della molecola d'acqua e l'idrogeno che ne deriva ...

Education

Didattica

JoVE Core

Cell Biology

Biologia cellulare

Unit 1

Unità 1

Biochemistry of the Cell

Biochimica della cellula

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

TERMINI E CONCETTI CHIAVE

cell chemistry: water, ions, and molecules

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the-periodic-table-and-organismal-elements

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functional groups

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types of chemical bonds

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noncovalent attractions in biomolecules

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polymers

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ph regulation in cells

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Virginia  Standards of Learning

HIgh School

BIO.2

BIO.2.b

BIO.6

BIO.6.a

Alabama Course of Study Science

From Molecules to Organisms: Structures and Processes

9-12.B.1.1

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Macromolecules

Biomolecules
Organisms contain a wide variety of organic molecules with numerous functions which depend on the chemical structures and properties of these ...

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ExpandCAUTION: It is important to always use care when handling reagents. For example, iodine will stain clothes and skin so wear ...

Identifying Macromolecules with Indicator Solutions
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lipid-derived-compounds-in-the-human-body

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ATP Energy Storage and Release

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introduction-to-mechanisms-of-enzyme-catalysis

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LS.Bio.1.2

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overview-of-myosin-structure-and-function

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Types of Intermediate Filaments

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Plant Cell Wall

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Plasmodesmata

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Use models to explain how the structure of organelles determines its function and supports overall cell processes.

LS.Bio.1.3

Cells are the smallest and basic units of life, whether it is a single cell that forms the entire organism, e.g., in a bacterium, or trillions of them, ...

the-tree-of-life-bacteria-archaea-and-eukaryotes

The Tree of Life - Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukaryotes

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Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells

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Construct explanations to compare prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells in terms of structures and degree of complexity.

LS.Bio.1.4

The DNA Helix

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The Central Dogma

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RNA is the Missing Link Between ...

What is Gene Expression?

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RNA Structure

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Types of RNA

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Construct an explanation to summarize how DNA and RNA direct the synthesis of proteins.

LS.Bio.1.5

Analyze how the relationship between structure and function supports life processes within organisms.

Cell Chemistry: Water, Ions, and Molecules

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