Name: ductile material stress-strain stages
Uploaded: 2024-03-07T13:22:36.000Z
Duration: 1 min 24 s
Channel: JoVE

試験片に荷重がかかると、まず長さがゆっくりと直線的に増加し、応力-ひずみ線図では最初の直線が急勾配になります。
臨界応力値に達すると、試験片は、主に斜め面に沿った滑りを引き起こすせん断応力により、加えられる荷重の増加を最小限に抑えて大幅な変形を受けます。
負荷が増加すると、材料の直径はネッキングと呼ばれる点で減少します。ネッキング後、少量の荷重でも試験片が破裂するまでさらに伸びます。
降伏とは、材料が塑性変形し始めるプロセスです。降伏が始まる応力は降伏強度と呼ばれ、最大荷重に対応する応力は極限強度、破断時の応力は破壊強度と呼ばれます。
構造用鋼の応力-ひずみ図は、ひずみ硬化による降伏後の応力が一定であることを示していますが、アルミニウムの応力は非線形に増加します。
材料の延性は、伸び率または断面積減少率によって測定されます。圧縮下では、ネッキングが発生しないため、延性材料の応力-ひずみ曲線は高ひずみで発散します。

 応力-ひずみ図 - 延性材料

Stress-Strain Diagram - Ductile Materials

構造用鋼やアルミニウムなどの延性材料の応力とひずみの関係は複雑で、いくつかの段階を経て進行します。 試験片に荷重がかかると、最初は応力-ひずみ線図上で急峻な直線で示されるように、直線的な長さの増加が見られます。 これは、材料が弾性変形しており、荷重を解除すると元の形状に戻ることを示します。 ただし、臨界応力値に達すると、塑性変形が始まります。 この段階では、主に材料の傾斜面に沿った滑りを促進するせん断応力により、適用される荷重はほとんど増加せずに大幅な変形が見られます。 負荷が増加すると、ネッキングとして知られる特定の点で材料の直径が減少します。 ネッキング後、荷重がわずかに増加しただけでも試験片は破断するまで大幅に伸びます。

この文脈では、降伏強度は応力によって開始される塑性変形です。 極限強度はネッキング前に材料が耐えることができる最大荷重であり、破断強度は破断に至る応力です。 興味深いことに、構造用鋼の応力-ひずみ線図は、降伏後に非線形応力が増加するアルミニウムとは異なり、ひずみ硬化により降伏後も安定しています。 最後に、破断前の大幅な塑性変形を示す延性は、断面積の伸び率または減少率によって測定されます。 圧縮下では、ネッキングが発生しないため、延性材料の応力-ひずみ曲線は高いひずみで発散します。

試験片に荷重がかかると、最初に長さがゆっくりと直線的に増加し、その結果、急な傾斜を持つ最初の直線が得られます...

Education

JoVE Core

Mechanical Engineering

機械工学

Unit 1

ユニット1

Stress and Strain - Axial Loading

応力とひずみ - 軸方向荷重

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

主要用語と概念

ductile material stress-strain stages

Ductile materials such as structural steel and aluminium show a multi-stage stress-strain response. When a specimen is loaded, its length first increases linearly at a slow rate. This produces a steep straight line on the stress-strain diagram. That initial part shows elastic deformation, which means the material returns to its original shape after unloading.

When the stress reaches a critical value, plastic deformation begins. In this stage, the material changes shape a lot while the applied load increases only a little. Shearing stresses help this process by allowing slippage along oblique surfaces in the material.

As loading continues, the specimen may start to narrow in diameter. This is called necking. After necking begins, even a small increase in load can stretch the specimen greatly until it finally ruptures.

The diagram also identifies key strength values. Yield strength is the stress that starts plastic deformation. Ultimate strength is the maximum load the material can carry before necking. Breaking strength is the stress at rupture. Structural steel often shows a steady post-yield region because of strain-hardening, while aluminium shows a non-linear stress increase after yield. Ductility is the ability to undergo large plastic deformation before rupture, and it is measured by percent elongation or reduction in cross-sectional area. Under compression, the stress-strain curves of ductile materials differ at high strains because necking does not occur.

Ductile Material Stress-Strain Stages

normal strain under axial loading

Axial Stress and Strain in a Rod

Axial stress and strain in a rod describe how a material changes length when a force is applied along its axis. The force may stretch the rod or compress it. In mechanics of materials, this deformation is called normal strain. Normal strain is found by dividing the change in length by the original length. This gives a unitless ratio that shows how much the material deforms under load. A load-deformation diagram can show elongation, but it cannot predict how another rod will deform. When a...

stress-strain diagram

Tensile Test Data and Material Behavior

A stress-strain diagram shows how a material responds during a tensile test. It records the mechanical behavior of a cylindrical specimen as it is pulled by an increasing centric load. The specimen is carefully prepared before testing. Two gauge marks are inscribed on the central part of the specimen. The distance between these marks is the gauge length. As the load increases, the gauge length also increases. This change in length is called elongation. The elongation is measured for each load...

stress-strain diagram - ductile materials

Ductile materials such as structural steel and aluminium show a multi-stage stress-strain response. When a specimen is loaded, its length first increases linearly at a slow rate. This produces a steep straight line on the stress-strain diagram. That initial part shows elastic deformation, which means the material returns to its original shape after unloading. When the stress reaches a critical value, plastic deformation begins. In this stage, the material changes shape a lot while the applied...

stress-strain diagram - brittle materials

Brittle Material Failure Under Tension

Brittle materials such as glass, cast iron, and stone fail with very little change in elongation. Their breaking strength and ultimate strength are nearly the same, and the strain at rupture is low. In these materials, failure is usually driven by normal stress, so the break surface is typically perpendicular to the applied load. Brittle materials also show little or no necking. Necking is the local narrowing of a material’s cross section under stress. Another important feature is that many...

true stress and true strain

Stress-Strain Curves Beyond Yield

Stress-strain curves beyond yield show how ductile materials behave after they start to deform permanently. Engineering stress is found by dividing the load by the original, undeformed cross-sectional area. It is a useful approximation, but it can lose accuracy when strain becomes large. True stress gives a more exact picture of the same specimen under load. It is calculated by dividing the applied load by the instantaneous cross-sectional area during deformation. As the specimen stretches,...

hooke's law

Stress-Strain Limits in Materials

Stress-strain limits in materials explain how solids respond when force is applied. Stress is the applied force per area, and strain is the change in shape or size that results. In the elastic range, strain stays directly proportional to stress. The constant that connects them is called the modulus of elasticity, or Young's modulus. This linear behavior continues only up to the proportional limit. After that point, the stress-strain relationship becomes nonlinear. For ductile materials, this...

plastic behavior

Yielding and Strain-Hardening in Metals

Yielding and strain-hardening describe how a material changes when stress goes beyond the elastic range. Under elastic behavior, the stress disappears when the load is removed, and the material returns to its original shape. Once stress exceeds the yield point, yielding begins and permanent deformation, or plastic set, starts. The switch from elastic to plastic behavior depends on the peak stress and on how long the load stays in place before removal. A specimen that is loaded, unloaded, and...

fatigue

Fatigue Failure in Repeated Loading

Fatigue failure happens when materials rupture after repeated or fluctuating loads. The stress can be far below the material’s static breaking strength. Even ductile materials can fail in a brittle way under fatigue. This behavior matters in machines and structural parts that face repetitive or changing loads. One example is an unbalanced pump impeller that creates vibrations. Another is a thin steel rod or wire bent back and forth in the same spot until it breaks. The number of loading...

deformation of member under multiple loadings

deformation-of-member-under-multiple-loadings

Calculating Rod Stretch from Mixed Loads

Calculating rod stretch from mixed loads starts with breaking the rod into parts. This step is needed when the rod is made of different materials or has changes in cross-section. Each part has its own internal force, cross-sectional area, length, and modulus of elasticity. These values are used to find the deformation of the full rod. For a member with a variable cross-section, the strain is not constant. Instead, it changes with position along the rod. The deformation of a small element is...

statically indeterminate problem solving

Axial Rod Reactions with Redundant Support

Axial rod reactions with a redundant support are found by combining equilibrium with deformation. The structure here uses two cylindrical rods, one steel and one brass, joined at point B and held by rigid supports at points A and C. The goal is to determine the reactions at A and C and the deflection at B. This setup is statically indeterminate because the supports create more unknown reactions than the equilibrium equations can solve. Statics alone is not enough to find every internal force...

thermal strain

Thermal Expansion of a Free Rod

Thermal strain describes how a structure changes length when temperature changes. It is important in real-world design because structures do not always stay at one temperature. Temperature shifts can affect how they behave and how long they last. A simple example is a homogeneous rod with a uniform cross-section resting freely on a flat horizontal surface. When the rod is heated, it elongates. The amount of elongation depends on the temperature change and the rod’s original length. This...

temperature dependent deformation

Thermal Stress in a Composite Rod

A steel-and-brass composite rod can build stress when temperature changes while both ends are restrained. The rod is nonhomogeneous, so its two sections respond differently. To find the compressive load, the problem is treated as statically indeterminate, which means the force cannot be found from equilibrium alone. The analysis begins by disconnecting one support so the rod can expand or contract freely under the temperature change. An unknown force is then applied at the free end. That force...

poisson's ratio

Material Strain Under Axial Loading

Poisson's ratio describes how a material changes shape when it is pulled or compressed along one direction. It links the strain in the direction of the force to the strain that happens sideways. When a slender bar is loaded axially, it stretches along the load and contracts laterally. Poisson's ratio is defined as the negative ratio of lateral contraction to axial elongation. The negative sign is used because the two strains usually have opposite signs. This keeps the ratio positive and makes...

generalized hooke's law

Multiaxial Stress and Strain Relation

Multiaxial stress and strain describe how an isotropic material responds when forces act along more than one direction. A cube-shaped sample under normal stresses on the three coordinate axes can change into a rectangular parallelepiped. Even after this deformation, the sides remain equal, and normal strain appears along the coordinate axes. The strain components are found from the stress components by studying each stress effect one at a time. The separate effects are then combined using the...

bulk modulus

Volume Change Under Hydrostatic Pressure

Bulk modulus describes how much a material resists a uniform squeeze. It links a change in pressure to the relative change in volume. For high school students, it is easiest to think of it as a measure of how hard it is to compress a material evenly from all sides. The idea becomes clearer when an isotropic material element is treated as a cube with unit volume. When normal stresses act on the cube, it deforms into a rectangular parallelepiped and its volume changes. The difference between the...

shearing strain

Shear Modulus and Angular Change

Shearing strain is the angular change that happens in a cubic element when it is loaded by shearing stress. Under this stress, the cube can change into an oblique parallelepiped without creating normal strains. If the cube is acted on only by shearing stress, its shape can shift strongly into a rhomboid. The amount of shearing strain is considered positive when the angle between the axes becomes smaller. This change in angle shows the direct effect of shear on the material. The deformation can...

relation between poisson's ratio, modulus of elasticity and modulus of rigidity

relation-between-poisson-s-ratio-modulus-elasticity-modulus

Axial Load Effects on Shear Strain

Axial load effects on shear strain are shown by how a slender bar deforms under tension or compression. When the bar is loaded along its axis, it changes in both the axial direction and the transverse direction. A small cubic element inside the bar can turn into a rectangular parallelepiped or a rhombus, depending on how it is oriented. This change in shape creates shearing strain, which is the distortion caused when angles in a material change. Axial loading produces both normal strain and...

saint-venant's principle

Load Effects Away from the Ends

Saint-Venant's principle describes how stress changes in a structural member when a load is applied. It shows that the exact way a load is placed matters most near the point of application. Farther away from that point, the stress pattern becomes much less dependent on how the load was applied. A simple example uses a member with plates on both ends. When the loads are applied at the center of the plates, the plates move toward each other without rotating. The member shortens in length and...

stress concentrations

Stress at Holes and Fillets

Stress can become much higher near holes and abrupt changes in shape within a structural member. These discontinuities create localized stress that may exceed the average stress in the part. For flat bars, the stress distribution can be measured experimentally with a photoelastic method. This approach is used for bars with a circular hole or with changing widths joined by fillets. The results depend on geometric ratios, such as the hole radius to the smaller width for a circular hole. For...

residual stresses

Residual Stresses After Welding and Cooling

Residual stresses are stresses that remain in a structure after the original load or heat source is removed. They often form when different parts of a material undergo uneven plastic deformation, which means permanent shape change. A rod stretched past its yield point is one example. It will not return to its original length, and some stress stays inside even after the load is gone. These stresses can also develop during welding. Heat changes the material during the weld and can cause plastic...

key terms and concepts

Explore how ductile materials like steel and aluminium deform through elastic, plastic, and necking stages, plus yield, ultimate, and breaking strength.

Ductile Material Stress-Strain Stages | JoVE K12

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mechanical engineering

Ductile Material Stress-Strain Stages

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