Name: stress-strain curves beyond yield
Uploaded: 2024-03-07T13:22:36.000Z
Duration: 1 min 28 s
Channel: JoVE

工学応力は、荷重と変形していない元の断面積の比率です。工学応力は、荷重を受ける材料を表すひずみを近似し、降伏後の延性材料に関連します。
エンジニアリング応力-ひずみ図は便宜上よく使用されますが、真の応力-ひずみ図は、特に大きなひずみの場合、より正確な描写を提供します。
真応力は、荷重を特定の変形瞬間における試験片の断面積で割ることによって計算されます。荷重が増加すると、断面積は減少し、真の応力を反映します。
ネッキング段階では、荷重に比例するが面積に反比例する真応力は、試験片が破裂するまで増加し続けます。
真のひずみは、連続して記録された長さの値を使用します。ゲージマーク間の距離の増分を対応する長さで割ると、基本ひずみが得られます。
真ひずみは、すべての基本ひずみ値の合計であり、材料の挙動をより正確に反映します。
エンジニアリング応力-ひずみプロットとは異なり、真応力と真ひずみの図は、ネッキング中、引張試験、圧縮試験全体で一貫しています。

真応力と真ひずみ

True Stress and True Strain

工学的応力は、荷重を元の変形していない断面積で割ったものとして計算されます。 荷重がかかった状態の材料と近似します。 この近似は、延性材料の落下後に特に関連します。 工学的な応力-ひずみ図は、利便性とアクセスしやすさのためによく使用されますが、特に大きなひずみ値を扱う場合、精度が不十分になることがあります。

対照的に、真応力はより正確な描写を提供します。 これは、加えられた荷重を変形中の試験片の瞬間断面積で割ることによって計算されます。 荷重が増加すると断面積が減少し、これが真応力値に正確に反映されます。 ネッキング段階では、真応力は荷重に比例する一方で面積に反比例するため増加し続け、最終的に試験片が破断するまでこれが続きます。

真ひずみの概念により、この正確な描写がさらに強化されます。 連続して記録された長さの値が考慮されます。 ゲージマーク間の距離の各増分を対応する長さで割って、基本のひずみを求めます。 真ひずみはこれらの基本のひずみ値の累積であり、材料の挙動を正確に反映しています。 工学的な応力-ひずみ線図とは異なり、真応力対真ひずみ線図は、ネッキング段階中および引張試験や圧縮試験などのさまざまな試験にわたって一貫性を維持します。

工学応力は、荷重と変形していない元の断面積の比率です。エンジニアリング応力は、...

Education

JoVE Core

Mechanical Engineering

機械工学

Unit 1

ユニット1

Stress and Strain - Axial Loading

応力とひずみ - 軸方向荷重

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

主要用語と概念

stress-strain curves beyond yield

Stress-strain curves beyond yield show how ductile materials behave after they start to deform permanently. Engineering stress is found by dividing the load by the original, undeformed cross-sectional area. It is a useful approximation, but it can lose accuracy when strain becomes large.

True stress gives a more exact picture of the same specimen under load. It is calculated by dividing the applied load by the instantaneous cross-sectional area during deformation. As the specimen stretches, its area decreases, and true stress reflects that change. During necking, true stress continues to rise because it depends on the load and the shrinking area, and it keeps rising until rupture.

True strain adds another layer of accuracy by using successive length measurements. Each small increase between gauge marks is divided by its current length to find an elementary strain. The true strain is the sum of these small strain values, so it tracks material behavior more precisely. Unlike engineering stress-strain diagrams, true stress versus true strain diagrams stay consistent during necking and also work well in tensile and compressive tests.

Stress-Strain Curves Beyond Yield

normal strain under axial loading

Axial Stress and Strain in a Rod

Axial stress and strain in a rod describe how a material changes length when a force is applied along its axis. The force may stretch the rod or compress it. In mechanics of materials, this deformation is called normal strain. Normal strain is found by dividing the change in length by the original length. This gives a unitless ratio that shows how much the material deforms under load. A load-deformation diagram can show elongation, but it cannot predict how another rod will deform. When a...

stress-strain diagram

Tensile Test Data and Material Behavior

A stress-strain diagram shows how a material responds during a tensile test. It records the mechanical behavior of a cylindrical specimen as it is pulled by an increasing centric load. The specimen is carefully prepared before testing. Two gauge marks are inscribed on the central part of the specimen. The distance between these marks is the gauge length. As the load increases, the gauge length also increases. This change in length is called elongation. The elongation is measured for each load...

stress-strain diagram - ductile materials

Ductile Material Stress-Strain Stages

Ductile materials such as structural steel and aluminium show a multi-stage stress-strain response. When a specimen is loaded, its length first increases linearly at a slow rate. This produces a steep straight line on the stress-strain diagram. That initial part shows elastic deformation, which means the material returns to its original shape after unloading. When the stress reaches a critical value, plastic deformation begins. In this stage, the material changes shape a lot while the applied...

stress-strain diagram - brittle materials

Brittle Material Failure Under Tension

Brittle materials such as glass, cast iron, and stone fail with very little change in elongation. Their breaking strength and ultimate strength are nearly the same, and the strain at rupture is low. In these materials, failure is usually driven by normal stress, so the break surface is typically perpendicular to the applied load. Brittle materials also show little or no necking. Necking is the local narrowing of a material’s cross section under stress. Another important feature is that many...

true stress and true strain

Stress-strain curves beyond yield show how ductile materials behave after they start to deform permanently. Engineering stress is found by dividing the load by the original, undeformed cross-sectional area. It is a useful approximation, but it can lose accuracy when strain becomes large. True stress gives a more exact picture of the same specimen under load. It is calculated by dividing the applied load by the instantaneous cross-sectional area during deformation. As the specimen stretches,...

hooke's law

Stress-Strain Limits in Materials

Stress-strain limits in materials explain how solids respond when force is applied. Stress is the applied force per area, and strain is the change in shape or size that results. In the elastic range, strain stays directly proportional to stress. The constant that connects them is called the modulus of elasticity, or Young's modulus. This linear behavior continues only up to the proportional limit. After that point, the stress-strain relationship becomes nonlinear. For ductile materials, this...

plastic behavior

Yielding and Strain-Hardening in Metals

Yielding and strain-hardening describe how a material changes when stress goes beyond the elastic range. Under elastic behavior, the stress disappears when the load is removed, and the material returns to its original shape. Once stress exceeds the yield point, yielding begins and permanent deformation, or plastic set, starts. The switch from elastic to plastic behavior depends on the peak stress and on how long the load stays in place before removal. A specimen that is loaded, unloaded, and...

fatigue

Fatigue Failure in Repeated Loading

Fatigue failure happens when materials rupture after repeated or fluctuating loads. The stress can be far below the material’s static breaking strength. Even ductile materials can fail in a brittle way under fatigue. This behavior matters in machines and structural parts that face repetitive or changing loads. One example is an unbalanced pump impeller that creates vibrations. Another is a thin steel rod or wire bent back and forth in the same spot until it breaks. The number of loading...

deformation of member under multiple loadings

deformation-of-member-under-multiple-loadings

Calculating Rod Stretch from Mixed Loads

Calculating rod stretch from mixed loads starts with breaking the rod into parts. This step is needed when the rod is made of different materials or has changes in cross-section. Each part has its own internal force, cross-sectional area, length, and modulus of elasticity. These values are used to find the deformation of the full rod. For a member with a variable cross-section, the strain is not constant. Instead, it changes with position along the rod. The deformation of a small element is...

statically indeterminate problem solving

Axial Rod Reactions with Redundant Support

Axial rod reactions with a redundant support are found by combining equilibrium with deformation. The structure here uses two cylindrical rods, one steel and one brass, joined at point B and held by rigid supports at points A and C. The goal is to determine the reactions at A and C and the deflection at B. This setup is statically indeterminate because the supports create more unknown reactions than the equilibrium equations can solve. Statics alone is not enough to find every internal force...

thermal strain

Thermal Expansion of a Free Rod

Thermal strain describes how a structure changes length when temperature changes. It is important in real-world design because structures do not always stay at one temperature. Temperature shifts can affect how they behave and how long they last. A simple example is a homogeneous rod with a uniform cross-section resting freely on a flat horizontal surface. When the rod is heated, it elongates. The amount of elongation depends on the temperature change and the rod’s original length. This...

temperature dependent deformation

Thermal Stress in a Composite Rod

A steel-and-brass composite rod can build stress when temperature changes while both ends are restrained. The rod is nonhomogeneous, so its two sections respond differently. To find the compressive load, the problem is treated as statically indeterminate, which means the force cannot be found from equilibrium alone. The analysis begins by disconnecting one support so the rod can expand or contract freely under the temperature change. An unknown force is then applied at the free end. That force...

poisson's ratio

Material Strain Under Axial Loading

Poisson's ratio describes how a material changes shape when it is pulled or compressed along one direction. It links the strain in the direction of the force to the strain that happens sideways. When a slender bar is loaded axially, it stretches along the load and contracts laterally. Poisson's ratio is defined as the negative ratio of lateral contraction to axial elongation. The negative sign is used because the two strains usually have opposite signs. This keeps the ratio positive and makes...

generalized hooke's law

Multiaxial Stress and Strain Relation

Multiaxial stress and strain describe how an isotropic material responds when forces act along more than one direction. A cube-shaped sample under normal stresses on the three coordinate axes can change into a rectangular parallelepiped. Even after this deformation, the sides remain equal, and normal strain appears along the coordinate axes. The strain components are found from the stress components by studying each stress effect one at a time. The separate effects are then combined using the...

bulk modulus

Volume Change Under Hydrostatic Pressure

Bulk modulus describes how much a material resists a uniform squeeze. It links a change in pressure to the relative change in volume. For high school students, it is easiest to think of it as a measure of how hard it is to compress a material evenly from all sides. The idea becomes clearer when an isotropic material element is treated as a cube with unit volume. When normal stresses act on the cube, it deforms into a rectangular parallelepiped and its volume changes. The difference between the...

shearing strain

Shear Modulus and Angular Change

Shearing strain is the angular change that happens in a cubic element when it is loaded by shearing stress. Under this stress, the cube can change into an oblique parallelepiped without creating normal strains. If the cube is acted on only by shearing stress, its shape can shift strongly into a rhomboid. The amount of shearing strain is considered positive when the angle between the axes becomes smaller. This change in angle shows the direct effect of shear on the material. The deformation can...

relation between poisson's ratio, modulus of elasticity and modulus of rigidity

relation-between-poisson-s-ratio-modulus-elasticity-modulus

Axial Load Effects on Shear Strain

Axial load effects on shear strain are shown by how a slender bar deforms under tension or compression. When the bar is loaded along its axis, it changes in both the axial direction and the transverse direction. A small cubic element inside the bar can turn into a rectangular parallelepiped or a rhombus, depending on how it is oriented. This change in shape creates shearing strain, which is the distortion caused when angles in a material change. Axial loading produces both normal strain and...

saint-venant's principle

Load Effects Away from the Ends

Saint-Venant's principle describes how stress changes in a structural member when a load is applied. It shows that the exact way a load is placed matters most near the point of application. Farther away from that point, the stress pattern becomes much less dependent on how the load was applied. A simple example uses a member with plates on both ends. When the loads are applied at the center of the plates, the plates move toward each other without rotating. The member shortens in length and...

stress concentrations

Stress at Holes and Fillets

Stress can become much higher near holes and abrupt changes in shape within a structural member. These discontinuities create localized stress that may exceed the average stress in the part. For flat bars, the stress distribution can be measured experimentally with a photoelastic method. This approach is used for bars with a circular hole or with changing widths joined by fillets. The results depend on geometric ratios, such as the hole radius to the smaller width for a circular hole. For...

residual stresses

Residual Stresses After Welding and Cooling

Residual stresses are stresses that remain in a structure after the original load or heat source is removed. They often form when different parts of a material undergo uneven plastic deformation, which means permanent shape change. A rod stretched past its yield point is one example. It will not return to its original length, and some stress stays inside even after the load is gone. These stresses can also develop during welding. Heat changes the material during the weld and can cause plastic...

key terms and concepts

Learn how true stress and true strain describe ductile materials after yield, including necking, shrinking area, and more accurate stress-strain curves.

Stress-Strain Curves Beyond Yield | JoVE K12

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mechanical engineering

Stress-Strain Curves Beyond Yield

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