Name: cell cycle stages in mitosis
Uploaded: 2019-03-11T09:21:14.000Z
Duration: 2 min 3 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

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North Carolina K-12 Science Standard Course of Study

9-12

Biology

from-molecules-to-organisms-structures-and-processes

From Molecules to Organisms- Structures and Processes

LS.Bio.2.1

Mitosis and Cytokinesis

<p>체세포 분열은 독특한 다섯 단계로 이루어지며세포의 유전 물질이두 개의 딸세포로 분할되는분열의 한 형태입니다먼저 체세포 분열 전기에는세포핵 염색질이 X모양의 염색체로 응축됩니다자매 염색분체 쌍이 동원체에 연결되어 구성됩니다동시에 핵 바깥에서는중심체라는 L자 모양의 세포 소기관이세포의 양극으로 이동합니다그렇게 세포 소기관이세포 내부 또는 외부에서 방추체 모양의실 형태인 방추사를 형성합니다그 후 전중기에는 핵막이 사라지며염색체가 세포의 다른 내용물에 노출됩니다또한 단백질 구조는 동원체 양쪽의염색분체 한 가닥마다 나타납니다이러한 동원체가 형성되면확장된 내부 미세소관이세포의 다른 극에 묶여있는각각의 자매 염색분체와 동원체를 연결합니다그 후 체세포 분열 중기가 진행됩니다중기에는 방추사가 염색체를세포 중앙에 일렬로 배열되도록 재배치합니다후기에는 동원체 결합 미세소관이 짧아지고자매 염색분체가 떨어지며개별 염색체 형태가 됩니다그리고 다른 미세소관 역학과 함께세포가 길게 늘어납니다말기에는 방사추가 해체되면서염색체는 세포의 양방향으로 끌려갑니다유전 물질이 느슨해지며두 개의 핵막이 각 염색체에 생성됩니다말기에는 세포질 분열이라는뚜렷한 과정으로 세포가 분열됩니다따라서 체세포 분열의 최종 결과는전구체와 유전적으로 동일한 세포 쌍입니다 </p>

<p>Guertin, David A., Susanne Trautmann, and Dannel McCollum. "진핵생물의 사이토키네시스." <em>Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev.</em> 66, no. 2 (June 1, 2002): 155–78. [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1128/MMBR.66.2.155-178.2002" target="__blank">소스</a>]</p>

유사분열과 세포질분열

<p>진핵세포에서 세포주기(즉 분열주기)는 세포 성장, DNA 복제/염색체(chromosome) 복제, 딸세포(daughter cell)에 염색체 분배, 그리고 마지막으로 세포분열을 포함하는 조정된 세포 과정으로 나뉩니다. 세포주기는 세포 증식에 영향을 미치는 세포 외 신호(extracellular signal)뿐만 아니라 조절체계(regulatory system)에 의해 엄격하게 통제됩니다.</p>
 
 <p>세포주기 과정은 (전형적인 인간 세포에서) 약 24시간에 걸쳐 두 단계로 일어납니다. 첫 번째 단계는 간기(interphase)의 S 기에서 일어나는 DNA 복제(DNA replication)입니다. 두 번째 단계는 분열기(M 기)로, 복제된 염색체를 두 개의 새로운 핵으로 분리하는 것(즉 유사분열(mitosis))과 세포질분열(cytokinesis)을 포함합니다. 두 단계는 일정 간격(G<sub>1</sub>과 G<sub>2</sub>)으로 떨어져 있으며, 이 시간 동안 세포는 복제와 분열을 준비합니다.</p>
 
 <h4>유사분열 과정</h4>
 
 <p>유사분열은 전기(prophase), 전중기(prometaphase), 중기(metaphase), 후기(anaphase), 말기(telophase) 이렇게 5단계로 나눌 수 있습니다. 세포에 따라 후기나 말기 중 시작되는 세포질분열은 M 기의 일부이지만 유사분열의 일부는 아닙니다.</p>
 
 <h4>전기</h4>
 
 <p>세포가 유사분열로 접어들면서, 복제된 염색체는 응축되기 시작하고 콘덴신(condensin)이라고 알려진 단백질의 도움으로 실과 같은 구조로 보이게 됩니다. 유사분열 방추체 장치(mitotic spindle apparatus)는 S 기 때 복제된 중심체(centrosome) 사이에 형성되기 시작하고 세포의 반대 극으로 이동합니다. 방추체(spindle)는 튜불린 단백질 단위체(subunit)로 구성된 미세소관(microtubule)이라고 불리는 섬유성(filamentous) 구조로 이루어져 있습니다. 방추체 미세소관은 응축된 염색체 쪽으로 늘어나기 시작합니다. 리보솜(ribosome)을 생산하는 핵의 구성요소인 인(nucleolus)은 사라지고, 이는 곧 일어날 핵의 붕괴를 나타냅니다.</p>
 
 <h4>전중기</h4>
 
 <p>전중기에서는 방추체 장치의 미세소관 섬유가 계속 자라고 염색체 응축이 완료됩니다. 핵막(nuclear envelope)은 완전히 분해되어 염색체를 방출합니다. 일부 미세소관은 방출된 염색체에 부착하는데, 이때 미세소관은 방추사부착점(kinetochore)이라고 불리는 단백질 구조에 결합합니다 (방추사부착점은 각 쌍의 자매염색분체(sister chromatid)에 있는 동원체(centromere)에 있습니다). 양쪽 극의 방추체 미세소관은 방추사부착점에 부착되어 응축된 자매염색분체(sister chromatid) 쌍을 포착합니다. 염색체에 부착되지 않는 방추체 미세소관은 방추체를 밀어내고 방추체 끝을 세포막에 고정합니다.</p>
 
 <h4>중기</h4>
 
 <p>방추체 미세소관은 완전히 응축된 자매염색분체 쌍을 세포 적도를 따라 중기판(metaphase plate)에 정렬합니다. 세포는 이제 분열할 준비가 되었습니다.</p>
 
 <h4>후기</h4>
 
 <p>양 방추체 극에서 나온 미세소관(방추사부착점에 붙어있음)은 동원체에서 자매염색분체를 분리합니다. 염색분체를 하나로 묶어주는 응집 단백질(cohesion protein)은 이제 분해됩니다. 방추사부착점에서 점점 짧아지는 미세소관은 각 자매염색분체 쌍에 있는 개별 자매염색분체(이제 염색체라 불림)를 각자 반대 극으로 이동시킵니다.</p>
 
 <h4>말기</h4>
 
 <p>일단 염색체가 세포의 반대쪽 극에 도달하면, 염색체는 염색질(chromatin) 형성하기 위해 응축을 풉니다. 방추체 미세소관은 튜불린 단위체로 분해되어 딸세포에서 세포골격 요소(cytoskeletal element)로 사용됩니다. 핵막은 각각의 염색체 집합 주변에서 다시 조립됩니다.</p>
 
 <h4>세포질분열</h4>
 
 <p>동물 세포의 세포질분열 시, 액틴섬유(actin filament)는 원형질막(plasma membrane)에서 세포를 둘로 나눌 분열구(cleavage furrow)를 만들기 위해 수축환(contractile ring)을 형성합니다. 식물 세포에서는 포도당, 효소, 구조 단백질을 운반하는 골지체(Golgi body; Golgi apparatus)의 소포(vesicle)가 결합해 세포판(cell plate)을 중기판이 있던 자리에 형성합니다. 성장하는 세포판은 양쪽에 있는 원형질막과 융합되어 세포를 둘로 나누는 새로운 세포벽(cell wall)을 형성합니다.</p>
 
 <p>이렇게 모세포(parent cell)와 동일한 두 개의 딸세포를 생성하는 유사분열이 완성되었습니다. 대부분의 인간 세포에서 유사분열은 약 24시간 세포 주기의 1시간을 차지합니다.</p>

진핵생물에서 세포 분열 주기는 세포 성장, DNA 복제/염색체를 포함하는 뚜렷하고 조정된 세포 과정으로 나뉩니다.

Education

교육

JoVE Core

생물학

Cellular Processes

세포 과정

Cell Cycle and Division

세포 주기와 분열

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

주요 용어 및 개념

cell cycle stages in mitosis

<p class="jove_content">Cell cycle stages in mitosis show how a eukaryotic cell copies its DNA and then divides into two daughter cells. The cycle is controlled by regulatory systems and by outside signals that affect cell growth and division. In typical human cells, the full cycle takes about 24 hours and includes two major phases. The first is DNA replication during the S phase of interphase. The second is the mitotic, or M, phase, which includes mitosis and cytokinesis. G1 and G2 are the gap stages between these phases, and they give the cell time to prepare for replication and division.</p>

<p class="jove_content">Mitosis has five stages: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Cytokinesis may begin during anaphase or telophase, depending on the cell, and it is part of the M phase but not part of mitosis. As mitosis begins in prophase, the replicated chromosomes condense and become visible with the help of condensin proteins. The spindle apparatus starts to form between the duplicated centrosomes, which move to opposite poles. This spindle is made of microtubules, which are built from tubulin proteins, and the nucleolus disappears as the nucleus prepares to break down.</p>

<p class="jove_content">During prometaphase, the chromosomes finish condensing and the nuclear envelope breaks down. This releases the chromosomes into the cell. Some spindle microtubules attach to kinetochores, which are protein structures on the centromere of each pair of sister chromatids. Microtubules from opposite poles capture the sister chromatid pairs. Other microtubules, called polar and astral microtubules, help push the spindle poles apart and anchor them to the cell membrane.</p>

<p class="jove_content">In metaphase, the spindle microtubules line up each pair of fully condensed sister chromatids at the equator of the cell. This position is called the metaphase plate. The cell is then ready to divide. In anaphase, the kinetochore microtubules shorten and pull the sister chromatids apart at the centromere. The cohesion proteins that hold the chromatids together break down. Each chromatid is now a chromosome, and it moves toward an opposite pole.</p>

<p class="jove_content">In telophase, the chromosomes reach the poles and begin to decondense into chromatin. The spindle microtubules also depolymerize into tubulin monomers, which can be used again as cytoskeletal elements in the daughter cells. New nuclear envelopes form around each set of chromosomes. Cytokinesis then divides the cytoplasm. In animal cells, actin filaments form a contractile ring in the plasma membrane and create a cleavage furrow that pinches the cell in two. In plant cells, Golgi vesicles carrying glucose, enzymes, and structural proteins join to form a cell plate at the former metaphase plate. The cell plate fuses with the plasma membranes on both sides and develops into a new cell wall. Mitosis is complete, and the result is two daughter cells identical to the parent cell. In most human cells, mitosis takes about one hour of the 24-hour cell cycle.</p>

Cell Cycle Stages in Mitosis

what is the cell cycle?

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Interphase in the Cell Growth Cycle

Interphase is the stage of the cell cycle when a eukaryotic cell grows and copies its DNA before mitosis. In a typical human cell, the full cell cycle takes about 24 hours, and interphase makes up about 95 percent of that time. It is followed by mitosis, also called M, when the cell divides.<br /><br />After mitosis and cytokinesis, cells enter the G1 phase, or gap 1. During G1, cells grow continuously and prepare for DNA replication. They are metabolically active and copy essential organelles and...

mitosis and cytokinesis

Cell cycle stages in mitosis show how a eukaryotic cell copies its DNA and then divides into two daughter cells. The cycle is controlled by regulatory systems and by outside signals that affect cell growth and division. In typical human cells, the full cycle takes about 24 hours and includes two major phases. The first is DNA replication during the S phase of interphase. The second is the mitotic, or M, phase, which includes mitosis and cytokinesis. G1 and G2 are the gap stages between these...

positive regulator molecules

Cyclins and CDKs in the Cell Cycle

Cyclins and CDKs help control the cell cycle, the process that produces daughter cells. Cells use internal checkpoints to make sure their size, energy reserves, and DNA are ready before they move forward. At these checkpoints, positive regulators help the cell continue, while negative regulators slow or stop it.<br /><br />The main positive regulators are cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases, or CDKs. These proteins are found in eukaryotes, from yeast to humans. Cyclins are grouped by the stage they help...

negative regulator molecules

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Cell cycle stop signals help control when a cell can move forward through division. Negative regulators pause or end the cell cycle until the cell meets the right conditions. Three well-studied negative regulators are p53, p21, and retinoblastoma protein, or Rb. Their roles became clear after faulty versions were found in cancer cells that kept replicating uncontrollably.<br /><br />These proteins act mostly at the G1 checkpoint, which comes early in the cell cycle. P53 has a strong effect on whether a...

cancer

Cancer Treatment, Personalization, and Cell Growth

Cancer develops when mutations affect genes that control cell division. Those changes can remove the normal brakes on growth and lead to uncontrolled cell proliferation. Modern science and medicine have improved how cancer is understood and treated, and some patients can now be cured.<br /><br />There is still no single cure for cancer because cancer is not one disease. It is a large group of many diseases. Even when two people have the same mutation in an oncogene or a tumor suppressor gene, their...

key terms and concepts

Learn how the cell cycle leads to mitosis and cytokinesis, from DNA replication and spindle formation to chromosome separation and cell division.

Cell Cycle Stages in Mitosis | JoVE K12

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Endoplasmic ReticulumThe endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an extensive network of membranous sacs and tubules in eukaryotic cells, continuous with the outer ...

Ribosomes

Ribosomes translate genetic information encoded by messenger RNA (mRNA) into proteins. Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have ribosomes. Cells that ...

Golgi Apparatus

As they leave the Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER), properly folded and assembled proteins are selectively packaged into vesicles. These vesicles are ...

Lysosomes

Lysosomes are membrane-enclosed spherical sacs derived from the Golgi apparatus. The most important function of the lysosome is degrading macromolecules ...

Peroxisomes

Peroxisomes and mitochondria are two important oxygen-utilizing organelles in eukaryotic cells. Mitochondria carry out cellular respiration&#x2014;the ...

Introduction to the Cytoskeleton

Overview of the Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton is a network of protein filaments present within the cell, having three distinct filaments ...

Introduction to Actin

Actin is a highly conserved cytoskeletal protein found abundantly in eukaryotic cells. It constitutes 10% weight of the total cellular protein in muscle ...

Cell Structure

Background
Cells represent the most basic biological units of all organisms, whether it be simple, single-celled organisms like bacteria, or large, ...

overview-of-myosin-structure-and-function

Overview of Myosin Structure and Function

Myosins are a family of molecular motor proteins, first identified in the skeletal muscles, where they are responsible for muscle contraction. Along with ...

Visualizing Onion and Cheek Cells
ExpandImmediately before the experiment, wash and peel onion bulbs for the class.
Remove the entire brown outer skin and ...

Microtubules

Microtubules are the thickest cytoskeletal filaments with a diameter of 25 nm. In prokaryotic organisms, microtubules are commonly found in locomotory ...

The Structure of Intermediate Filaments

The intermediate filaments are one of three widely studied cytoskeletal filaments. They are so named as their diameter (10 nm) is in between that of ...

Types of Intermediate Filaments

The intermediate filaments are an essential component of the cytoskeleton. Presently six types of intermediate filament have been identified. Type I and ...

Gap Junctions

Multicellular organisms employ a variety of ways for cells to communicate with each other. Gap junctions are specialized proteins that form pores between ...

The Extracellular Matrix

In order to maintain tissue organization, many animal cells are surrounded by structural molecules that make up the extracellular matrix (ECM). Together, ...

Tissues

Cells with similar structure and function are grouped into tissues. A group of tissues with a specialized function is called an organ. There are four main ...

Plant Cell Wall

The plant cell wall gives plant cells shape, support, and protection. As a cell matures, its cell wall specializes according to the cell type. For ...

Plasmodesmata

The organs in a multicellular organism&#x2019;s body are made up of tissues formed by cells. To work together cohesively, cells must communicate. One way ...

Use models to explain how the structure of organelles determines its function and supports overall cell processes.

LS.Bio.1.3

Cells are the smallest and basic units of life, whether it is a single cell that forms the entire organism, e.g., in a bacterium, or trillions of them, ...

the-tree-of-life-bacteria-archaea-and-eukaryotes

The Tree of Life - Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukaryotes

Prokaryotes are small unicellular organisms that include the domains &#8212; Archaea and Bacteria. Bacteria include many common microorganisms, such as ...

Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells

Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells represent two fundamental types of cellular organization, differing significantly in structure, complexity, and function. ...

Construct explanations to compare prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells in terms of structures and degree of complexity.

LS.Bio.1.4

The DNA Helix

Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, is the genetic material responsible for passing traits from generation to generation in all organisms and most viruses. DNA ...

The Central Dogma

The central dogma explains the flow of genetic information from DNA nucleotides to the amino acid sequence of proteins.
RNA is the Missing Link Between ...

What is Gene Expression?

A gene is a stretch of DNA that serves as the blueprint for functional RNAs and proteins. Since DNA is comprised&#160; of nucleotides and proteins are ...

RNA Structure

The basic structure of RNA consists of a string of ribonucleotides attached by phosphodiester bonds. Although most RNA is single-stranded, it can form ...

Construct an explanation to summarize how DNA and RNA direct the synthesis of proteins.

LS.Bio.1.5

Analyze how the relationship between structure and function supports life processes within organisms.

Cell Cycle Stages in Mitosis

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