Name: how acids and bases form ions
Uploaded: 2020-09-03T13:38:26.000Z
Duration: 3 min 26 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

north-carolina-k-12-science-standard-course-of-study

North Carolina K-12 Science Standard Course of Study

9-12

Physical Science

Matter and its Interactions

PS.PSc.2.4

Acids, Bases and Neutralization Reactions

인간의 위는 음식의 소화를 돕는 염산을 포함한 위액이 들어 있는 근육기관입니다. 어떤 음식은 위장의 산도를 높여서 위산 역류를 일으킵니다. 알칼리성 식품 또는 제산제와 같은 염기를 섭취하면 과잉산을 중화시켜 타는 듯한 통증을 완화시켜 줍니다.

이것은 산-염기 반응의 한 가지 예입니다. 가장 단순한 산은 분리 가능한 수소 원자를 포함하고 있는 물질입니다. 이런 물질은 수용액에서 해당 음이온과 함께 양전하를 띤 수소 이온 또는 양성자를 방출합니다.

양성자는 물 분자와 반응하여 하이드로늄 이온을 생성합니다. 예를 들어, 질산 수용액에는 하이드로늄 이온과 질산 이온이 들어 있습니다. 일반적으로 알려진 다른 산에는 염산, 황산, 그리고 인산이 있습니다.

산은 분자당 분리할 수 있는 수소 원자의 수에 따라 일양성자산 또는 다양성자산으로 됩니다. 각각 1개의 분리 가능한 수소를 가진 염산과 질산은 모두 일양성자산의 예이고, 황산과 인산은 다양성자산의 예입니다. 황산은 이양성자산으로 두 개의 양성자를 순차적으로 방출하는 반면 인산은 삼양성자산으로 양성자가 3단계로 순차적으로 분리됩니다.

가장 간단한 염기는 수용액에서 음전하 수산화 이온을 생성하는 화합물입니다. 수산화 이온을 가져 쉽게 식별할 수 있는 염기에는 수산화나트륨, 수산화칼륨 및 수산화칼슘이 있습니다. 이러한 염기들은 물에 첨가되면 수산화 이온과 해당 금속 양이온으로 분리됩니다.

암모니아와 같은 비수산화 염기들은 물과 반응하여 물 분자에서 양성자를 받아들여 암모늄 이온과 수산화이온을 생성합니다. 일반적으로 산과 염기가 반응하여 물과 염을 생성합니다. 산-염기 반응 중 산에서 공급되는 양성자의 몰 수와 염기에서 공급되는 수산화 이온의 몰 수가 동일할 때 중화 반응이라고도 합니다.

예를 들어, 동일한 양의 질산 수용액과 수산화칼륨 수용액이 혼합된 경우 용액에 공급되는 하이드로늄 이온과 수산화이온의 양도 동일합니다. 따라서 하이드로늄 이온과 수산화이온은 서로 결합하여 물을 형성함으로써 완전히 중화되어 하이드로늄 이온이나 수산화이온이 남지 않게 됩니다. 또한 질산 음이온과 칼륨 양이온이 짝을 이뤄 염인 질산칼륨을 생성합니다.

일부 특정 중화 반응은 기체 발생 반응입니다. 예를 들어, 염산과 아황산칼륨은 서로 반응하여 아황산-중아황산 평형계를 통해 염화칼륨과 물, 그리고 이산화황 가스를 생성합니다.

산, 염기 및 중화 반응

산-염기 반응은 수소 이온인 H^+가 한 화학종에서 다른 화학종으로 이동하는 반응입니다. 이러한 반응은 세포나 호수, 바다 내의 화학적 변형에서부터 산업 규모의 비료, 의약품 및 사회에 필수적인 기타 물질의 생산에 이르기까지 수많은 자연 및 기술 과정에서 매우 중요합니다.

산을 정의하는 방법에는 여러 가지가 있습니다. 수용액의 맥락에서 산은 용해되어 수소 이온을 생성하는 물질입니다.

<img alt="Eq1" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1029/1029_Equations-01.png" style="height: 40px;" />

이것은 스웨덴 화학자 Svante Arrhenius(1859-1927)의 이름을 딴 산의 Arrhenius 정의입니다. H^+ 기호로 표시되는 수소 이온을 양성자라고 합니다. 용액에서 양성자는 산소의 고립전자쌍을 통해 물 분자와 화학적으로 결합하여 하이드로늄 이온인 H_3O^+를 형성합니다.

<img alt="Eq2" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1029/1029_Equations-02.png" style="height: 40px;" />

산의 이온화에 대한 화학 반응식은 다음과 같습니다.

<img alt="Eq3" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1029/1029_Equations-03.png" style="height: 40px;" />

이러한 방식으로 물과 완전히 반응하는 산을 강산이라고 합니다. HCl, HNO_3 및 HBr이 몇 가지 예입니다.

일상생활에서 접하는 대부분의 산은 약산입니다. 과일의 구연산, 식초의 아세트산, 우유의 젖산 등이 그 예입니다. 약산의 친숙한 예는 식품 식초의 주성분인 아세트산입니다. 일반적인 조건에서 물에 용해되면 아세트산 분자의 약 1%만이 이온화된 형태인 CH_3CO_2^−로 존재합니다.

<img alt="Eq4" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1029/1029_Equations-04.png" style="height: 40px;" />

위 방정식에서 이중 화살표를 사용하는 것은 이 공정의 부분 반응 측면을 나타냅니다.

염기는 물에 용해되어 수산화물 이온(OH^-)을 생성하는 물질입니다. 가장 일반적인 염기는 알칼리 또는 알칼리 토금속 양이온(1족 및 2족)과 수산화물 이온(예: NaOH 및 Ca(OH)_2)이 결합된 이온 화합물입니다. 이전에 논의한 산 화합물과 달리 이러한 화합물은 물과 화학적으로 반응하지 않습니다. 대신, 용해 및 해리되어 수산화물 이온을 용액으로 직접 방출합니다. 예를 들어, KOH와 Ba(OH)_2는 물에 용해되고 완전히 해리되어 양이온(각각 K^+와 Ba^2+)과 수산화물 이온인 OH^-를 생성합니다. 이 염기는 물에서 완전히 해리되는 다른 수산화물과 함께 강염기로 간주됩니다.

예를 들어 수산화나트륨이 물에 용해되는 경우를 생각해 보십시오.

<img alt="Eq5" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1029/1029_Equations-05.png" style="height: 40px;" />

이 방정식은 수산화나트륨이 염기임을 확인시켜 줍니다. NaOH는 물에 용해되면 해리되어 Na^+ 및 OH^- 이온을 생성합니다. 이는 수산화물 이온을 함유한 다른 이온 화합물에도 적용됩니다. 일반적인 조건에서 이온성 화합물이 물에 용해되면 해리 과정이 본질적으로 완료되므로 NaOH 및 기타 이온성 수산화물은 모두 강염기로 분류됩니다.

이온성 수산화물과 달리 일부 화합물은 물 분자와 화학적으로 반응하여 용해될 때 수산화물 이온을 생성합니다. 모든 경우에 이 화합물은 부분적으로만 반응하므로 약염기로 분류됩니다. 이러한 유형의 화합물은 자연에도 풍부하며 다양한 기술에서 중요한 원자재입니다. 예를 들어, 약염기성 암모니아의 전 세계 생산량은 일반적으로 연간 100미터톤을 훨씬 넘습니다. 왜냐하면 이는 농업용 비료, 기타 화합물의 화학적 합성을 위한 원료 및 가정용 세제의 활성 성분으로 널리 사용되기 때문입니다. 물에 용해되면 암모니아는 부분적으로 반응하여 다음과 같이 수산화물 이온을 생성합니다.

<img alt="Eq6" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1029/1029_Equations-06.png" style="height: 40px;" />

이는 정의상 H^+ 이온이 물 분자에서 암모니아 분자로 전달되는 산-염기 반응입니다. 일반적인 조건에서는 용해된 암모니아의 약 1%만이 NH_4^+ 이온으로 존재합니다.

중화 반응은 반응물이 산과 염기(물은 아님)이고 생성물은 종종 소금과 물인 특정 유형의 산-염기 반응입니다.

<img alt="Eq7" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1029/1029_Equations-07.png" style="height: 40px;" />

중화 반응을 설명하기 위해 과도한 위산(HCl)과 관련된 증상을 완화하기 위해 마그네시아유(고체 Mg(OH)_2의 수성 현탁액)와 같은 일반적인 제산제를 섭취할 때 어떤 일이 일어나는지 생각해 보십시오.

<img alt="Eq8" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1029/1029_Equations-08.png" style="height: 40px;" />

이 반응에서는 물 외에도 염화마그네슘이라는 염이 생성됩니다. 산(강 또는 약)의 H^+(aq)는 염기(또는 약염기와 물의 반응으로 생성)의 OH^-(aq)와 결합하여 H^2O(l)를 형성합니다. 예를 들어, HCl(강산) 수용액과 NaOH(강염기) 수용액 사이의 반응은 다음과 같습니다.

<img alt="Eq9" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1029/1029_Equations-09.png" style="height: 40px;" />

HCl와 NaOH는 모두 100% 이온화됩니다. 따라서 완전한 이온 방정식은 다음과 같이 쓸 수 있습니다.

<img alt="Eq10" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1029/1029_Equations-10.png" style="height: 40px;" />

Cl^-와 Na^+는 구경꾼 이온(spectator ions)이라고 불리며 상쇄되어 순 이온 방정식은 다음과 같습니다.

<img alt="Eq11" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1029/1029_Equations-11.png" style="height: 40px;" />

이 문서는 에서 발췌되었습니다 <a href="https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/4-2-classifying-chemical-reactions">OpenStax Chemistry 2e, Section: 4.2: Classifying Chemical Reactions.</a>

산-염기 반응은 수소 이온 H+가 한 화학 종에서 다른 화학 종으로 전달되는 반응입니다. 이러한 반응은 매우 중요합니다 ...

Education

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Book

Chemistry

화학

Chemical Quantities and Aqueous Reactions

화학량과 수용액에서의 반응

chemical-quantities-and-aqueous-reactions

how acids and bases form ions

Acids and bases form ions in water through acid-base reactions. These reactions move a hydrogen ion, H+, from one chemical species to another. They matter in many natural and technological processes, from chemistry inside cells and in lakes and oceans to the large-scale production of fertilizers, pharmaceuticals, and other useful substances.

In water, an acid is a substance that produces hydrogen ions. This is the Arrhenius definition of an acid. The H+ ion is also called a proton. In solution, these protons combine with water molecules to form hydronium ions, H3O+.

Acids that react completely with water are called strong acids. Common examples include HCl, HNO3, and HBr. Most acids people encounter in daily life are weak acids. Citric acid in fruits, acetic acid in vinegar, and lactic acid in milk are examples. Acetic acid is a familiar weak acid, and under typical conditions only about 1% of its molecules are in the ionized form, CH3CO2−. A double arrow shows that this reaction is only partial.

A base is a substance that dissolves in water to yield hydroxide ions, OH−. The most common bases are ionic compounds made of alkali or alkaline earth metal cations from groups 1 and 2 with hydroxide ions, such as NaOH and Ca(OH)2. These compounds do not react chemically with water. Instead, they dissolve and dissociate, releasing hydroxide ions directly into solution.

KOH and Ba(OH)2 are examples of strong bases because they dissociate completely in water. The same is true for sodium hydroxide. When NaOH dissolves, it gives Na+ and OH− ions. Any ionic compound that contains hydroxide ions behaves this way under typical conditions, so these hydroxides are classified as strong bases.

Some compounds make hydroxide ions by reacting with water molecules instead of simply dissociating. These compounds react only partially, so they are weak bases. Ammonia is a common example. It is produced on a very large scale because it is used as an agricultural fertilizer, a starting material for chemical synthesis, and an ingredient in household cleaners. When ammonia dissolves in water, it reacts partially to form OH− and NH4+ ions. This is an acid-base reaction because H+ ions move from water molecules to ammonia molecules. Under typical conditions, only about 1% of dissolved ammonia is present as NH4+.

A neutralization reaction is a special acid-base reaction in which an acid and a base react, but water is not a reactant. The products are often a salt and water. Milk of magnesia is a common antacid made of solid Mg(OH)2 in water. It helps relieve excess stomach acid, HCl, by neutralizing it. This reaction forms water and the salt magnesium chloride.

In neutralization, H+(aq) from the acid combines with OH−(aq) from the base to make H2O(l). For example, HCl and NaOH are both completely ionized in water. Their complete ionic equation includes Na+ and Cl− ions, but these are spectator ions because they cancel out. The net ionic equation shows the essential change: H+(aq) + OH−(aq) → H2O(l).

How Acids and Bases Form Ions

precipitation reactions

Predicting Precipitation in Aqueous Reactions

Precipitation reactions happen when two aqueous solutions of soluble salts are mixed and an insoluble ionic compound forms. That solid is called a precipitate. The ions in solution exchange partners, so these reactions are also called double displacement, double replacement, exchange, or metathesis reactions. These reactions are useful in chemistry for identifying metal ions in a compound. They also support gravimetric methods, which measure composition by the mass of a substance. Whether a...

reaction stoichiometry

Using Balanced Equations to Predict Amounts

Balanced chemical equations show how much of each substance reacts and forms in a chemical change. The formulas identify the reactants and products, which helps classify the reaction. The coefficients show the relative numbers of each substance, which lets chemists measure the relationships between amounts consumed and produced. These quantitative relationships are called stoichiometry. The word comes from the Greek words stoicheion, meaning element, and metron, meaning measure. Stoichiometry...

acids, bases and neutralization reactions

Acids and bases form ions in water through acid-base reactions. These reactions move a hydrogen ion, H+, from one chemical species to another. They matter in many natural and technological processes, from chemistry inside cells and in lakes and oceans to the large-scale production of fertilizers, pharmaceuticals, and other useful substances. In water, an acid is a substance that produces hydrogen ions. This is the Arrhenius definition of an acid. The H+ ion is also called a proton. In...

limiting reactant

Limiting Reactant in Water Formation

Limiting reactants control how much product forms in a chemical reaction. In a balanced equation, the listed amounts of reactants and products are called stoichiometric amounts. In real reactions, the reactants are not always present in those exact proportions. The limiting reactant is the reactant that gets used up first. Once it is gone, the reaction stops making more product. The other reactant is called the excess reactant. Chemists often use extra amounts of one reactant to make sure the...

reaction yield

Calculating Percent Yield in Reactions

Percent yield shows how much product a chemical reaction actually makes compared with how much it should make. The expected amount is called the theoretical yield. It comes from the balanced chemical equation and the stoichiometry, or mole ratios, in that equation. The theoretical yield assumes that the limiting reactant is completely converted into the desired product. The product collected after a reaction is the actual yield. In many cases, the actual yield is lower than the theoretical...

general properties of solutions

Solvents, Solutes, and Solution Types

Solutions are common mixtures found in everyday life. Ocean water, air, and gasoline are all examples of solutions. These mixtures contain two or more types of atoms or molecules in varying amounts. A solution is a homogeneous mixture, which means its composition is uniform throughout. This is different from a heterogeneous mixture, which has a non-uniform composition. In a homogeneous mixture, the components are evenly spread out and thoroughly mixed. Every solution has a solvent and a...

solution concentration and dilution

Molarity and Dilution in Solutions

Molarity and dilution are key ideas for describing solution concentration. Concentration means the relative amount of one component in a solution. In many solutions, one component is present in much larger amount. That component is the solvent, which acts as the medium that holds the other parts dissolved or dispersed. Water is a very common solvent, so aqueous solutions are common on Earth. A solute is the component present at a much lower concentration than the solvent. Chemists often...

electrolyte and nonelectrolyte solutions

Conductivity in Electrolyte Solutions

Electrolyte solutions conduct electricity because they contain mobile ions. The amount of current depends on how many ions are present in the aqueous solution. A solution with more dissolved ions conducts better, while a solution with few or no ions conducts poorly. Strong electrolytes dissociate completely in water. This complete dissociation is shown with a single forward arrow. Water-soluble ionic compounds such as sodium chloride split into sodium cations and chloride anions in solution.

solubility of ionic compounds

Solubility Rules for Ionic Salts

Solubility rules help predict whether ionic salts will dissolve in water. Solubility is the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve in a given amount of solvent at a set temperature and pressure. It is often measured in molarity, or moles per liter (mol/L). A compound is soluble if it dissolves in water. When a soluble salt dissolves, its ions separate and spread evenly through the solution. This physical change is called dissociation. Potassium chloride, KCl, is a simple example. Water...

chemical reactions in aqueous solutions

Aqueous Reactions and Ionic Equations

Aqueous reactions are chemical reactions that take place in water. Water is a good solvent, so it can dissolve many substances. Because of that, many chemical reactions happen in aqueous solution. In high school chemistry, these reactions are often grouped into three common patterns: precipitation, acid-base, and oxidation-reduction. A precipitation reaction happens when ions in two aqueous ionic compounds exchange partners and form an insoluble salt, called a precipitate. In an acid-base...

oxidation–reduction reactions

Redox Reactions and Oxidation Numbers

Redox reactions are chemical changes in which electrons move between reactants, and oxidation numbers help track that change. The term oxidation once referred only to reactions with molecular oxygen, but it now covers a wider reaction class called oxidation-reduction, or redox, reactions. Some redox reactions form ionic products. A simple example is the reaction between sodium and chlorine that produces sodium chloride. To follow what happens to each reactant, chemists often write...

oxidation numbers

Assigning Oxidation States in Redox Reactions

Oxidation states help track electron transfer in redox reactions. An oxidation number, also called an oxidation state, is a hypothetical number that shows the effective charge of an atom or element. Chemists assign it by using a set of rules. In an ionic compound, oxidation numbers are based on how many electrons move between reacting species. For example, when calcium chloride forms, calcium loses two valence electrons and the two chlorine atoms each gain one electron. In CaCl2, calcium has...

acids, bases, and neutralization reactions

synthesis and decomposition reactions

Building and Breaking in Chemical Reactions

Synthesis and decomposition are two redox reactions that show how substances can be built up or broken down. Synthesis means to make something, while decomposition means to break something apart. These reactions also involve chemical changes and energy changes. Synthesis reactions are also called combination reactions. In a synthesis reaction, two or more substances join to form one more complex substance. They are often written as A + B → AB or A + B → C. One example is the formation of...

scientists in action

행동하는 과학자들

key terms

주요 용어

key relationships & equations

주요 관계 및 방정식

chapter exercises

장별 연습 문제

appendices

부록

chemical quantities and aqueous reactions

Learn how acids and bases form ions in water, including strong and weak acids, strong and weak bases, ammonia, and neutralization reactions.

How Acids and Bases Form Ions | JoVE K12

chemistry

PS.PSc.2.6

Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills

High School

Chemistry and Physics

IPC.8

IPC.8.A

Pennsylvania State Academic Standards

Chemical Reactions

3.2.9-12.C

3.2.9-12.G

Louisiana Student Standards for Science

Matter And Its Interactions

HS-PS1-2

HS-PS1-7

ohios-learning-standards-and-model-curriculum

Ohio’s Learning Standards and Model Curriculum

Interactions Of Matter

Chemical reactions

Tennessee Academic Standards

Matter and Its Interactions

CHEM1.PS1.4

Arizona Science Standards

HS+C.P1

HS+C.P1U1.5

CHEM.9

CHEM.9.B

Alabama Course of Study Science

9-12.PS.3.5.d

9-12.PS.3.6.d

Florida Department of Education

SC.912.P.8

SC.912.P.8.8

new-york-state-science-learning-standards

New York State Science Learning Standards

HS. Chemical Reactions

HS-PS1-4.

HS-PS1-12.

Georgia Standards of Excellence

SC6.

Neutralization Reactions

Classifying Matter by State

Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes it undergoes. Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Matter is all around us; the air, ...

Classifying Matter by Composition

Matter: Pure Substances and Mixtures
According to its composition, the matter can be classified into two broad categories &mdash; pure substances and ...

Elements: Chemical Symbols and Isotopes

A chemical symbol is an abbreviation used to indicate an element or an atom of an element. For example, the symbol for mercury is Hg. The same symbol is ...

Molecules and Compounds

Atoms and Molecules

Everything in the universe is made up of matter, and matter is composed of a combination of elements. An atom is the smallest unit of ...

Solution Formation

There is no one solvent that can dissolve every type of solute. Some substances that readily dissolve in a certain solvent might be insoluble in a ...

Colloids

Children at play often make suspensions such as mixtures of mud and water, flour and water, or a suspension of solid pigments in water known as tempera ...

Construct an explanation to classify matter as a pure substance or mixture; homogeneous or heterogeneous; element or compound; solution, colloid or suspension.

PS.PSc.1.1

Phase Transitions

Whether solid, liquid, or gas, a substance&#39;s state depends on the order and arrangement of its particles (atoms, molecules, or ions). Particles in the ...

phase-transitions-vaporization-and-condensation

Phase Transitions: Vaporization and Condensation

The physical form of a substance changes on changing its temperature. For example, raising the temperature of a liquid causes the liquid to vaporize ...

Vapor Pressure

When a liquid vaporizes in a closed container, gas molecules cannot escape. As these gas phase molecules move randomly about, they will occasionally ...

Clausius-Clapeyron Equation

The equilibrium between a liquid and its vapor depends on the temperature of the system; a rise in temperature causes a corresponding rise in the vapor ...

Phase Transitions: Melting and Freezing

Heating a crystalline solid increases the average energy of its atoms, molecules, or ions, and the solid gets hotter. At some point, the added energy ...

phase-transitions-sublimation-and-deposition

Phase Transitions: Sublimation and Deposition

Some solids can transition directly into the gaseous state, bypassing the liquid state, via a process known as sublimation. At room temperature and ...

Heating and Cooling Curves

When a substance&#8212;isolated from its environment&#8212;is subjected to heat changes, corresponding changes in temperature and phase of the substance ...

Phase Diagrams

A phase diagram combines plots of pressure versus temperature for the liquid-gas, solid-liquid, and solid-gas phase-transition equilibria of a substance. ...

Use models to compare the phases of matter and the physical changes they undergo.

PS.PSc.1.2

physical-and-chemical-properties-of-matter

Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter

The characteristics that enable us to distinguish one substance from another are called properties.

Physical Properties of Matter

A physical property is ...

molecular-comparison-of-gases-liquids-and-solids

Molecular Comparison of Gases, Liquids, and Solids

Particles in a solid are tightly packed together (fixed shape) and often arranged in a regular pattern; in a liquid, they are close together with no ...

Intermolecular vs Intramolecular Forces

Intermolecular forces (IMF) are electrostatic attractions arising from charge-charge interactions between molecules. The strength of the intermolecular ...

Intermolecular Forces

Atoms and molecules interact through bonds (or forces): intramolecular and intermolecular. The forces are electrostatic as they arise from interactions ...

comparing-intermolecular-forces-melting-point-boiling-point

Comparing Intermolecular Forces: Melting Point, Boiling Point, and Miscibility

Intermolecular forces are attractive forces that exist between molecules. They dictate several bulk properties, such as melting points, boiling points, ...

Carry out investigations to compare physical and chemical properties of matter.

PS.PSc.1.3

The Atomic Theory of Matter

The earliest recorded discussion of the basic structure of matter comes from ancient Greek philosophers. Leucippus and Democritus argued that all matter ...

Subatomic Particles

Dalton was only partially correct about the particles that make up matter. All matter is composed of atoms, and atoms are composed of three smaller ...

The Bohr Model

Following the work of Ernest Rutherford and his colleagues in the early twentieth century, the picture of atoms consisting of tiny dense nuclei surrounded ...

Emission Spectra

When solids, liquids, or condensed gases are heated sufficiently, they radiate some of the excess energy as light. Photons produced in this manner have a ...

The de Broglie Wavelength

In the macroscopic world, objects that are large enough to be seen by the naked eye follow the rules of classical physics. A billiard ball moving on a ...

The Uncertainty Principle

Werner Heisenberg considered the limits of how accurately one can measure properties of an electron or other microscopic particles. He determined that ...

Use models to interpret the data presented in Bohr diagrams and electron dot diagrams for neutral atoms of elements 1 through 18.

PS.PSc.1.4

Ions and Ionic Charges

In ordinary chemical reactions, the nucleus &mdash; which contains the protons and neutrons of each atom and thus identifies the element &mdash; remains ...

Use models to compare representations of atoms, ions, and isotopes.

PS.PSc.1.5

The Periodic Table

As early chemists discovered more elements, they realized that various elements could be grouped by their similar chemical behaviors. One such grouping ...

Periodic Classification of the Elements

The periodic table arranges atoms based on increasing atomic number so that elements with the same chemical properties recur periodically. When their ...

atomic-radii-and-effective-nuclear-charge

Atomic Radii and Effective Nuclear Charge

The elements in groups of the periodic table exhibit similar chemical behavior. This similarity occurs because the members of a group have the same number ...

Ionic Radii

Ionic radius is the measure used to describe the size of an ion. A cation always has fewer electrons and the same number of protons as the parent atom; it ...

Ionization Energy

The amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from a gaseous atom in its ground state is called its first ionization energy ...

Electron Affinity

The electron affinity (EA) is the energy change for adding an electron to a gaseous atom to form an anion (negative ion).



This process can be either ...

Alkali Metals

Group 1 elements are soft and shiny metallic solids. They are malleable, ductile, and good conductors of heat and electricity. The melting points of the ...

Halogens

Group 17 elements, known as halogens, are nonmetals. At room temperature, fluorine and chlorine are gases, bromine is a liquid, and iodine a solid. ...

Noble Gases


The elements in group 18 are noble gases (helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon). They earned the name &ldquo;noble&rdquo; because they were ...

Use the Periodic Table as a model to predict the relative properties (metallic/nonmetallic character, ionic charge, and reactivity) and arrangement of elements based on the pattern of valence electrons in the outermost energy levels of atoms.

PS.PSc.1.6

Understand types, properties, and structure of matter.

How Acids and Bases Form Ions

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