Name: ionization energy trends in the periodic table
Uploaded: 2020-09-03T13:38:28.000Z
Duration: 3 min 12 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

north-carolina-k-12-science-standard-course-of-study

NC K-12 Science Standard Course of Study

9-12

Chemistry

Matter and its Interactions

PS.Chm.2.2

Ionization Energy

원자와 이온의 화학적 작용은 그의 전자, 특히 화학적 결합 형성에 참여하는 가장 바깥쪽 전자들을 얼마나 쉽게 또는 어렵게 제거할 수 있느냐에 따라 크게 영향을 받습니다. 바닥 상태의 기체 원자로부터 전자를 제거하는 데 필요한 에너지를 일차 이온화 에너지라고 하며 몰당 킬로줄로 표시합니다. 다음 전자를 제거하는 데 필요한 에너지를 이차 이온화 에너지라고 하며 이런 식으로 정의합니다.

주기율표에서 열 아래로 이동할수록 이온화 에너지가 감소합니다. 열 아래로 갈수록 원자가 전자의 주 양자수가 증가하여 원자 크기가 더 커진다는 사실을 상기하십시오. 따라서 가장 바깥쪽 전자는 멀리 있을수록 제거하기가 쉽습니다.

전형 원소의 경우 이온화 에너지는 주기를 따라 증가합니다. 그 이유는 원자 번호가 증가하면서 원자가 전자가 핵전하에 의한 영항을 더 많이 받아 가장 바깥쪽 전자의 제거를 더 어려워지게 한다는 데 있습니다. 이를 통해 예를 들어 염소가 나트륨보다 이온화 에너지가 더 높은 이유를 설명할 수 있습니다.

일반적으로 이온화 에너지는 알칼리 금속에서 최소이며 각각의 불활성 기체에서 최고값을 가집니다. 전이 금속에서는 주기를 따라 이온화 에너지가 약간 증가하며 f-블록 원소에서는 변화가 훨씬 작습니다. 하지만 고려해야 할 몇 가지 예외가 있습니다.

붕소는 주기율표에서 오른쪽으로 더 멀어져도 베릴륨보다 이온화 에너지가 작습니다. 베릴륨은 에너지가 낮은 2s 전자를 가지고 있는 반면 붕소는 에너지가 더 높은 2p 전자를 가지고 있기 때문에 전자의 제거가 에너지 측면에서 더 유리합니다. 또 다른 예외로 산소는 질소보다 낮은 일차 이온화 에너지를 가지고 있습니다.

질소와 비교하면 산소는 4개의 p-전자를 가지고 있고 1개의 전자를 제거하면 전자와 전자의 반발력이 줄어듭니다. 따라서 이온화에 필요한 에너지는 줄어듭니다. 이러한 예외는 후속 주기에서도 관측됩니다.

양이온에서 전자를 제거하는 것은 중성 원자에서보다 더 어렵습니다. 일반적으로 원소에 대해 순차적 이온화 에너지는 증가합니다. 칼륨을 고찰해 봅시다.

이차 이온화 에너지는 훨씬 더 높은데, 비활성 기체 구성을 가진 이온에서 코어 전자의 제거를 포함하기 때문입니다. 마찬가지로 칼슘의 경우 이차 이온화 에너지보다 3차 이온화 에너지가 훨씬 높은데 비활성 기체 구성을 가진 양이온에서 핵심부 전자가 제거되기 때문입니다.

이온화 에너지

바닥 상태의 기체 원자에서 가장 느슨하게 결합된 전자를 제거하는 데 필요한 에너지의 양을 첫 번째 이온화 에너지(IE_1)라고 합니다. 원소 X의 첫 번째 이온화 에너지는 1+ 전하를 갖는 양이온을 형성하는 데 필요한 에너지입니다.

<img alt="Eq1" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1049/1049_Equations-01.png" style="height: 40px;" />

두 번째로 느슨하게 결합된 전자를 제거하는 데 필요한 에너지를 두 번째 이온화 에너지(IE_2)라고 합니다.

<img alt="Eq2" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1049/1049_Equations-02.png" style="height: 40px;" />

세 번째 전자를 제거하는 데 필요한 에너지는 세 번째 이온화 에너지입니다. 원자나 이온에서 전자를 제거하려면 항상 에너지가 필요하므로 이온화 과정은 흡열이며 IE 값은 항상 양수입니다. 더 큰 원자의 경우 가장 느슨하게 결합된 전자는 핵에서 더 멀리 위치하므로 제거하기가 더 쉽습니다. 따라서 크기(원자 반경)가 증가할수록 이온화 에너지는 감소해야 합니다.

특정 기간 내에서 IE_1은 일반적으로 Z가 증가함에 따라 증가합니다. 그룹 아래에서 IE_1 값은 일반적으로 Z가 증가함에 따라 감소합니다. 그러나 이러한 추세에는 체계적인 편차가 있습니다. 붕소(원자 번호 5)의 이온화 에너지는 붕소의 핵 전하가 양성자 한 개 더 크더라도 베릴륨(원자 번호 4)의 이온화 에너지보다 작습니다. 이는 침투 및 차폐로 인해 l이 증가함에 따라 부 껍질의 에너지가 증가하기 때문에 설명될 수 있습니다. 어느 하나의 껍질 내에서 s 전자는 p 전자보다 에너지가 낮습니다. 이는 동일한 껍질에 있는 p 전자보다 s 전자가 원자에서 제거하기가 더 어렵다는 것을 의미합니다. 베릴륨([He]2s^2)의 이온화 중에 제거된 전자는 s 전자인 반면, 붕소([He]2s^22p^1)의 이온화 중에 제거된 전자는 p 전자입니다. 이로 인해 붕소의 핵 전하가 양성자 1만큼 더 크더라도 붕소의 첫 번째 이온화 에너지가 낮아집니다. 따라서 우리는 새로운 부 껍질이 시작될 때마다 발생하는 예측 추세에서 작은 편차를 볼 수 있습니다.

궤도가 절반 이상 채워지면 또 다른 편차가 발생합니다. 일정 기간 동안 IE_1 값이 증가하는 추세에도 불구하고 산소의 첫 번째 이온화 에너지는 질소의 것보다 약간 적습니다. 산소의 경우 전자 하나를 제거하면 2p 오비탈에서 전자 쌍으로 인해 발생하는 전자-전자 반발이 제거되고 절반으로 채워진 오비탈이 생성됩니다(에너지적으로 유리한). 다음 기간에도 유사한 변화가 발생합니다.

양이온에서 전자를 제거하는 것은 양이온에 대한 정전기적 인력이 더 크기 때문에 중성 원자에서 전자를 제거하는 것보다 더 어렵습니다. 마찬가지로, 더 높은 양전하를 가진 양이온에서 전자를 제거하는 것은 더 낮은 전하를 가진 이온에서 전자를 제거하는 것보다 더 어렵습니다. 따라서 한 원소의 연속적인 이온화 에너지는 항상 증가합니다. 표 1에서 볼 수 있듯이 각 원소의 이온화 에너지가 크게 증가함을 알 수 있다. 이 점프는 원자가 전자보다 제거하기 어려운 핵심 전자의 제거에 해당합니다. 예를 들어, Sc와 Ga는 모두 3개의 원자가 전자를 가지므로 세 번째 이온화 이후에 이온화 에너지가 급격히 증가합니다.

Table 1: 선택한 원소의 연속 이온화 에너지(kJ/mol)

<table style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">
	<tbody style="border: 1px solid black;">
		<tr>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">요소</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">IE1</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">IE2</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">IE3</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">IE4</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">IE5</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">IE6</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">IE7</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">K</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">418.8</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">3051.8</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">4419.6</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">5876.9</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">7975.5</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">9590.6</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">11343</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">Ca</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">589.8</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">1145.4</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">4912.4</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">6490.6</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">8153.0</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">10495.7</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">12272.9</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">Sc</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">633.1</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">1235.0</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">2388.7</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">7090.6</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">8842.9</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">10679.0</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">13315.0</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">Ga</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">578.8</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">1979.4</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">2964.6</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">6180</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">8298.7</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">10873.9</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">13594.8</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">Ge</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">762.2</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">1537.5</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">3302.1</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">4410.6</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">9021.4</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">Not available</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">Not available</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">As</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">944.5</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">1793.6</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">2735.5</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">4836.8</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">6042.9</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">12311.5</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">Not available</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

이 문서는 에서 발췌되었습니다 <a href="https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/6-5-periodic-variations-in-element-properties">OpenStax Chemistry 2e, Section 6.5: Periodic Variations in Element Properties.</a>

바닥 상태의 기체 원자에서 가장 느슨하게 결합된 전자를 제거하는 데 필요한 에너지의 양을 첫 번째 이온화 에너지라고 합니다.

Education

교육

JoVE Core

화학

하나

Periodic Properties of the Elements

원소의 주기적 성질

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

주요 용어 및 개념

ionization energy trends in the periodic table

Ionization energy is the energy needed to remove an electron from a gaseous atom or ion in its ground state. The first ionization energy, or IE1, removes the most loosely bound electron and forms a 1+ cation. The second ionization energy, IE2, removes the next electron, and each later ionization energy removes another electron from the atom or ion.

Ionization always requires energy, so these processes are endothermic. That means ionization energy values are always positive. In general, larger atoms have lower ionization energy because their outermost electrons are farther from the nucleus and easier to remove.

Across a period, first ionization energy generally increases as atomic number increases. Down a group, first ionization energy generally decreases as atomic number increases. The trend is useful, but there are some clear exceptions.

One exception appears when a new subshell begins. Boron has a lower first ionization energy than beryllium, even though boron has one more proton. This happens because s electrons are lower in energy than p electrons in the same shell, so the s electron in beryllium is harder to remove than the p electron in boron. The effect comes from penetration and shielding.

Another exception appears when a p subshell becomes more than half filled. Oxygen has a slightly lower first ionization energy than nitrogen. Removing one electron from oxygen reduces electron-electron repulsion in the 2p orbital and gives a more stable half-filled orbital.

Successive ionization energies always increase. It is harder to remove an electron from a cation than from a neutral atom because the positive charge pulls more strongly on the remaining electrons. It is even harder to remove an electron from a cation with a higher positive charge.

The large jump in successive ionization energies shows when core electrons begin to be removed. Core electrons are harder to remove than valence electrons. For example, scandium and gallium both have three valence electrons, so the sharp rise in ionization energy comes after the third ionization. The table of values for K, Ca, Sc, Ga, Ge, and As shows this pattern clearly.

Ionization Energy Trends in the Periodic Table

periodic classification of the elements

How Valence Electrons Shape the Periodic Table

The periodic table organizes elements by increasing atomic number, and it also shows why elements in the same group behave alike. As the electron configurations are placed into the table, a repeating pattern appears in the outer shells of atoms. These outer electrons are called valence electrons, and they play the biggest role in chemical reactions. They are the highest-energy electrons in an atom, so they are easier to lose or share than core electrons. Valence electrons also help determine...

ionization energy

Ionization energy is the energy needed to remove an electron from a gaseous atom or ion in its ground state. The first ionization energy, or IE1, removes the most loosely bound electron and forms a 1+ cation. The second ionization energy, IE2, removes the next electron, and each later ionization energy removes another electron from the atom or ion. Ionization always requires energy, so these processes are endothermic. That means ionization energy values are always positive. In general, larger...

atomic radii and effective nuclear charge

atomic-radii-and-effective-nuclear-charge

Periodic Trends in Atomic Size

Periodic trends in atomic size help explain why atoms get larger or smaller across the periodic table. Elements in the same group show similar chemical behavior because they have the same number and arrangement of valence electrons. Across a period, each new element adds one proton to the nucleus and one electron to the valence shell. Down a group, the number of valence electrons stays the same, but the principal quantum number increases by one. Atomic radius is not easy to define with perfect...

ionic radii

How Ionic Charge Changes Ion Size

Ionic radius describes the size of an ion. It changes when an atom gains or loses electrons. Cations are positive ions with fewer electrons than the parent atom, and they are smaller than the atoms they come from. Aluminum shows this pattern clearly. A neutral aluminum atom has a covalent radius of 118 pm, while Al3+ has an ionic radius of 68 pm. When electrons are removed from the outer valence shell, the remaining core electrons feel a stronger effective nuclear charge, or Zeff. That pull...

electron affinity

Electron Affinity Trends on the Periodic Table

Electron affinity is the energy change that happens when a gaseous atom gains an electron and becomes a negative ion, or anion. For many elements, this process releases energy, so the electron affinity value is negative. For some elements, energy must be added instead, so the value is positive. Electron affinity also applies when more than one electron is added. The second electron affinity is the energy change for adding an electron to an anion to make a 2− ion. Later electron affinities...

alkali metals

Alkali Metals: Reactivity Trends

Alkali metals are Group 1 elements with one valence electron. They are soft, shiny metallic solids that are malleable, ductile, and good conductors of heat and electricity. Their melting points are unusually low for metals and drop as you move down the group. Density generally increases down the group, except for potassium. The trend in atomic size helps explain their behavior. Moving from lithium to cesium, each element has a higher principal quantum number, so the outer electron is farther...

halogens

Halogens: Trends and Reactions

Halogens are Group 17 nonmetals that show clear trends in structure and reactivity. At room temperature, fluorine and chlorine are gases, bromine is a liquid, and iodine is a solid. Astatine is highly unstable and radioactive, so most of its properties are still unknown because it has a very short half-life. Tennessine is a synthetic element that is also predicted to belong to this group. These elements do not usually exist as single atoms. Instead, they form diatomic molecules, which means...

noble gases

Noble Gases: Sources, Uses, and Reactions

Noble gases are the group 18 elements helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon. They were called “noble” because they were once thought to be nonreactive. That idea changed in 1962, when Dr. Neil Bartlett at the University of British Columbia showed that this assumption was not fully correct. These gases occur in very small amounts in the atmosphere. Some natural gas contains 1–2% helium by mass. Helium is separated from natural gas by removing the condensable components, which leaves...

key terms and concepts

Explore first and successive ionization energy, periodic trends, and key exceptions such as boron, oxygen, and the jump to core electrons.

Ionization Energy Trends in the Periodic Table | JoVE K12

chemistry

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Physical Science

PS.PSc.1.6

Pennsylvania State Academic Standards

Chemical Reactions

3.2.9-12.C

Structure and Properties of Matter

3.2.9-12.A

Louisiana Student Standards for Science

High School

Matter And Its Interactions

HS-PS1-1

HS-PS1-2

ohios-learning-standards-and-model-curriculum

Ohio’s Learning Standards and Model Curriculum

Study Of Matter

Periodic trends of the elements

Structure And Properties Of Matter

Periodic Table

Tennessee Academic Standards

Matter and Its Interactions

CHEM1.PS1.12

Virginia  Standards of Learning

HIgh School

CH.2

CH.2.c

PS.2

PS.2.b

PS.4

PS.4.a

PS.4.b

Arizona Science Standards

HS.P1

HS.P1U1.1

HS+C.P1

HS+C.P1U1.1

new-jersey-student-learning-standards-for-science

New Jersey Student Learning Standards for Science

Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills

CHEM.5

CHEM.5.A

CHEM.5.C

CHEM.7

CHEM.7.A

Alabama Course of Study Science

9-12.C.1.1

9-12.C.1.1.e

motion-and-stability-forces-and-interactions

Motion and Stability: Forces and Interactions

9-12.C.2.2.f

9-12.PS.3.4.b

Next Generation Science Standards

Chemistry and Physics

IPC.7

IPC.7.B

new-york-state-science-learning-standards

New York State Science Learning Standards

HS. Structure and Properties of Matter

HS-PS1-1.

HS. Chemical Reactions

HS-PS1-2.

Georgia Standards of Excellence

SPS1.

Periodic Table Trends

SC1.

periodic-table-trends-atomic-radii-ionization-and-electronegativity

Periodic Table Trends: Atomic Radii, Ionization, and Electronegativity

Scientific Laws and Theories

Scientific Laws

In science, a law is defined as a concise, verbal or mathematical, statement that summarizes a vast number of experimental observations. ...

The Scientific Method

Chemistry is an empirical science. Scientists often pose questions to understand the chemistry in everyday life and seek answers to these questions. To ...

Classifying Matter by State

Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes it undergoes. Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Matter is all around us; the air, ...

Classifying Matter by Composition

Matter: Pure Substances and Mixtures
According to its composition, the matter can be classified into two broad categories &mdash; pure substances and ...

The Atomic Theory of Matter

The earliest recorded discussion of the basic structure of matter comes from ancient Greek philosophers. Leucippus and Democritus argued that all matter ...

Subatomic Particles

Dalton was only partially correct about the particles that make up matter. All matter is composed of atoms, and atoms are composed of three smaller ...

Elements: Chemical Symbols and Isotopes

A chemical symbol is an abbreviation used to indicate an element or an atom of an element. For example, the symbol for mercury is Hg. The same symbol is ...

Use models to explain how the scientific understanding of atomic structure has evolved.

PS.Chm.1.1

Radioactivity and Nuclear Equations

Nuclear chemistry is the study of reactions that involve changes in nuclear structure. The nucleus of an atom is composed of protons and, except for ...

Types of Radioactivity

The most common types of radioactivity are &#945; decay, &#946; decay, &#947; decay, neutron emission, and electron capture.
Alpha (&#945;) decay is the ...

Nuclear Stability

Protons and neutrons, collectively called nucleons, are packed together tightly in a nucleus. With a radius of about 10&#8722;15 meters, a nucleus is ...

Nuclear Binding Energy

The difference between the calculated and experimentally measured masses is known as the mass defect of the atom. In the case of helium-4, the mass defect ...

Radioactive Decay and Radiometric Dating

Radioactivity is a spontaneous disintegration of an unstable nuclide and is a random process, as all the nuclei in the sample do not decay simultaneously. ...

Nuclear Fission

Many heavier elements with smaller binding energies per nucleon can decompose into more stable elements that have intermediate mass numbers and larger ...

Nuclear Power

Controlled nuclear fission reactions are used to generate electricity. Any nuclear reactor that produces power via the fission of uranium or plutonium by ...

Nuclear Fusion

The process of converting very light nuclei into heavier nuclei is also accompanied by the conversion of mass into large amounts of energy, a process ...

Nuclear Transmutation

Nuclear transmutation is the conversion of one nuclide into another. It can occur by the radioactive decay of a nucleus, or the reaction of a nucleus with ...

Use models to compare nuclear reactions including alpha decay, beta decay and gamma decay; nuclear fusion and nuclear fission.

PS.Chm.1.2

Atomic Orbitals

An atomic orbital represents the three-dimensional regions in an atom where an electron has the highest probability to reside. The radial distribution ...

The Pauli Exclusion Principle

The arrangement of electrons in the orbitals of an atom is called its electron configuration. We describe an electron configuration with a symbol that ...

The Energies of Atomic Orbitals

In an atom, the negatively charged electrons are attracted to the positively charged nucleus. In a multielectron atom, electron-electron repulsions are ...

The Aufbau Principle and Hund's Rule

To determine the electron configuration for any particular atom, we can build the structures in the order of atomic numbers. Beginning with hydrogen, and ...

electron-configuration-of-multielectron-atoms

Electron Configuration of Multielectron Atoms

The alkali metal sodium (atomic number 11) has one more electron than the neon atom. This electron must go into the lowest-energy subshell available, the ...

Use models to explain how electrons are distributed in atoms.

PS.Chm.1.3

Periodic Classification of the Elements

The periodic table arranges atoms based on increasing atomic number so that elements with the same chemical properties recur periodically. When their ...

The Periodic Table

As early chemists discovered more elements, they realized that various elements could be grouped by their similar chemical behaviors. One such grouping ...

Atomic Mass

Atoms &mdash; and the protons, neutrons, and electrons that compose them &mdash; are extremely small. For example, a carbon atom weighs less than 2 ...

Molar Mass

The identity of a substance is defined not only by the types of atoms or ions it contains but by the quantity of each type of atom or ion. For example, ...

Use the Periodic Table as a model to predict the relative properties of elements based on the pattern of valence electrons in the outermost energy levels of atoms.

PS.Chm.2.1

Atomic Radii and Effective Nuclear Charge

The elements in groups of the periodic table exhibit similar chemical behavior. This similarity occurs because the members of a group have the same number ...

Ionic Radii

Ionic radius is the measure used to describe the size of an ion. A cation always has fewer electrons and the same number of protons as the parent atom; it ...

The amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from a gaseous atom in its ground state is called its first ionization energy ...

Electron Affinity

The electron affinity (EA) is the energy change for adding an electron to a gaseous atom to form an anion (negative ion).



This process can be either ...

Construct an explanation to infer the atomic size, reactivity, electronegativity, and ionization energy of an element based on its position in the Periodic Table.

Types of Chemical Bonds

Chemical bonding theories were pioneered by American chemist Gilbert&#xA0;N. Lewis. He developed a model called the Lewis model to explain the type and ...

Lewis Symbols and the Octet Rule

Chemical bonds are complex interactions between two or more atoms or ions, which reduce the potential energy of the molecule. Gilbert N. Lewis developed a ...

Ionic Bonding and Electron Transfer

Ions are atoms or molecules bearing an electrical charge. A cation (a positive ion) forms when a neutral atom loses one or more electrons from its valence ...

The Born-Haber Cycle

Lattice Energy&#xA0;

An ionic compound is stable because of the electrostatic attraction between its positive and negative ions. The lattice energy of a ...

trends-in-lattice-energy-ion-size-and-charge

Trends in Lattice Energy: Ion Size and Charge

An ionic compound is stable because of the electrostatic attraction between its positive and negative ions. The lattice energy of a compound is a measure ...

Covalent Bonding and Lewis Structures

Compared to ionic bonds, which results from the transfer of electrons between metallic and nonmetallic atoms, covalent bonds result from the mutual ...

Electronegativity

Whether a bond is nonpolar or polar covalent is determined by a property of the bonding atoms called electronegativity.&#xA0;

Electronegativity values of ...

Analyze and interpret data to explain the mechanisms and properties of the two main types of intramolecular (ionic and covalent) bonds.

PS.Chm.3.1

Analyze the structure of atoms and isotopes.

Ionization Energy Trends in the Periodic Table

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