Name: weak base ph and kb calculations
Uploaded: 2020-09-24T15:06:51.000Z
Duration: 3 min 21 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

north-carolina-k-12-science-standard-course-of-study

North Carolina K-12 Science Standard Course of Study

9-12

Physical Science

Matter and its Interactions

PS.PSc.2.5

Weak Base Solutions

암모니아와 같은 약염기는 물에서 양성자를 받아들여 수산화이온을 생성하는 브론스테드 염기입니다. 약염기는 암모니아의 경우 값이 1.76 10⁻⁵인 염기 해리 상수 Kb에 따라 물과 부분적으로 반응합니다. 암모니아에 대한 Kb는 암모늄 이온 농도를 수산화 이온 농도와 곱하고 평형 상태의 암모니아 농도로 나눈 값으로 표현할 수 있습니다.

Kb를 사용하여 약염기 용액에서 수산화 이온 농도를 결정할 수 있으며 이어서 용액의 pOH 및 pH를 결정할 수 있습니다. 암모니아 용액 0.23M의 수산화 이온 농도와 pH는 그것의 염기 해리 상수를 이용하여 그리고 암모니아, 암모늄 이온 및 수산화 이온의 초기 값 및 평형 값을 포함하는 ICE 표를 준비하여 결정할 수 있습니다. Kb 식에 평형 농도를 대입하면 Kb는 x 곱하기 x를 0.23으로 나누고 x를 뺀 값입니다.

약염기가 부분 해리를 나타내므로 0.23 빼기 x는 약 0.23으로 볼 수 있습니다. 방정식을 풀면 x는 2 10⁻³ 몰과 같습니다. 수산화물 이온 농도가 0.23 몰의 0.86 퍼센트에 불과하기 때문에 0.23 빼기 x의 근사치는 0.23과 같습니다.

이 용액의 pH를 계산하려면 먼저 2.70에 해당하는 수산화물 이온 농도의 마이너스 로그를 취하여 pOH를 결정합니다. pH는 다음 공식을 사용하여 결정할 수 있습니다. pH pOH는 14이고 값은 11.30입니다.

약염기 용액의 Kb는 그것의 pH가 알려진 경우 계산할 수 있습니다. 메틸아민은 물에서 메틸아모늄 이온과 수산화 이온으로 부분적으로 해리되는 약염기입니다. 메틸아민에 대한 Kb는 메틸암모늄 이온 농도를 수산화 이온 농도로 곱하고 평형 상태에서의 메틸아민 농도로 나눈 값으로 표현할 수 있습니다.

pH가 11.6인 0.040 몰 메틸라민 용액의 Kb를 계산하려면 먼저 pOH를 계산한 후 수산화물 이온 농도를 계산해야 합니다. pH가 11.60이므로 pOH는 2.40이고, 수산화이온의 농도는 4.0 10⁻³입니다. ICE 테이블은 메틸아민, 메틸암모늄, 수산화물의 초기 농도 및 평형 농도에 의해 구성될 수 있습니다.

Kb 표현식에 평형 농도를 대입하면 4.4 10⁻⁴인 Kb 값이 산출됩니다.

약한 염기 용액

일부 화합물은 물 분자와 화학적으로 반응하여 용해될 때 수산화물 이온을 생성합니다. 모든 경우에 이 화합물은 부분적으로만 반응하므로 약염기로 분류됩니다. 이러한 유형의 화합물은 자연에도 풍부하며 다양한 기술의 중요한 원자재입니다. 예를 들어, 약염기성 암모니아의 전 세계 생산량은 일반적으로 연간 100미터톤을 훨씬 넘으며 농업용 비료, 기타 화합물의 화학적 합성을 위한 원료 및 가정용 세제의 활성 성분으로 널리 사용됩니다. 물에 용해되면 암모니아는 부분적으로 반응하여 다음과 같이 수산화물 이온을 생성합니다.

<img alt="Eq1" src="/files/ftp_upload/11401/11401_Equation_1.png" style="height: 50px;" />

이는 정의상 산-염기 반응이며, 이 경우 물 분자에서 암모니아 분자로 H^+ 이온이 이동하는 것을 포함합니다. 일반적인 조건에서는 용해된 암모니아의 약 1%만이 NH_4^+ 이온으로 존재합니다.

약염기 용액에서 수산화물 이온 농도 및 pOH 계산

수산화물 이온의 농도, pOH 및 약염기인 트리메틸아민의 0.25M 용액의 pH를 구하세요.

<img alt="Eq2" src="/files/ftp_upload/11401/11401_Equation_2.png" style="height: 50px;" />

이 시스템의 ICE 테이블은 다음과 같습니다.

<div class="overflow">
<table style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"></td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">(CH3) 3 N(aq)</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">(CH3) 3 NH+ (aq)</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">OH- (aq)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">초기 농도(M)</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">0.25</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">0</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">~0</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">변경(M)</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">-x</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">+x</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">+x</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">평형 농도 (M)</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">0.25 - x</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">0 + x</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">~0 + x</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>
</div>

평형 농도 항을 K_b 표현으로 대체하면 다음과 같습니다.

<img alt="Eq3" src="/files/ftp_upload/11401/11401_Equation_3.png" style="height: 90px;" />

x << 0.25라고 가정하고 x를 해결하면 결과가 나옵니다.

<img alt="Eq4" src="/files/ftp_upload/11401/11401_Equation_4.png" style="height: 50px;" />

이 값은 초기 농도(0.25)의 5% 미만이므로 가정이 타당합니다.

ICE 표에 정의된 대로 x는 수산화물 이온의 평형 농도와 같습니다.

<img alt="Eq5" src="/files/ftp_upload/11401/11401_Equation_5.png" style="height: 50px;" />

pOH는 다음과 같이 계산됩니다.

<img alt="Eq6" src="/files/ftp_upload/11401/11401_Equation_6.png" style="height: 50px;" />

관계를 사용하여;

<img alt="Eq7" src="/files/ftp_upload/11401/11401_Equation_7.png" style="height: 50px;" />

pH 계산을 허용합니다.

<img alt="Eq8" src="/files/ftp_upload/11401/11401_Equation_8.png" style="height: 50px;" />

pH로부터 K_b 결정

0.28M 에틸아민(C_2H_5NH_2) 용액의 pH가 12.10이라면 K_b는 얼마인가요?

<img alt="Eq9" src="/files/ftp_upload/11401/11401_Equation_9.png" style="height: 50px;" />

에틸아민의 K_b를 계산하려면 먼저 pOH와 수산화 이온 농도를 결정해야 합니다. pH가 12.10이므로 pOH는 다음과 같이 계산할 수 있습니다.

<img alt="Eq10" src="/files/ftp_upload/11401/11401_Equation_10.png" style="height: 50px;" />

pOH가 1.90이므로 용액의 수산화 이온 농도는 다음 공식을 사용하여 계산할 수 있습니다.

<img alt="Eq11" src="/files/ftp_upload/11401/11401_Equation_11.png" style="height: 50px;" />

이 시스템에 대한 ICE 테이블은 다음과 같이 구성될 수 있습니다.

<div class="overflow">
<table style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"></td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">C2H5NH2 (aq)</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">C2H5NH3+ (aq)</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">OH- (아크)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">초기 농도(M) </td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">0.28</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">0</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">~0</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">변경 (M)</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">-0.0126</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">+0.0126</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">+0.0126</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">평형 농도 (M)</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">0.28 - 0.0126</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">0.0126</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">0.0126</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>
</div>

0.0126 M은 0.28 M의 4.5%이므로 0.28 − 0.0126은 5% 규칙에 따라 0.28 M과 거의 같다고 볼 수 있습니다.

에틸아민의 K_b에 대한 식에 위의 값을 대입한 후,

<img alt="Eq12" src="/files/ftp_upload/11401/11401_Equation_12.png" style="height: 90px;" />

이 문서는 에서 발췌되었습니다 Openstax, Chemistry 2e <a href="https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/4-2-classifying-chemical-reactions">Section 4.2: </a><a href="https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/4-2-classifying-chemical-reactions">Classifying Chemical Reactions</a> and <a href="https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/14-3-relative-strengths-of-acids-and-bases">14.3 Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases.</a>

일부 화합물은 물 분자와 화학적으로 반응하여 용해될 때 수산화물 이온을 생성합니다. 모든 경우에, 이러한 화합물은 부분적으로만 반응하고 ...

Education

교육

JoVE Core

Chemistry

화학

하나

Acids and Bases

산과 염기

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

주요 용어 및 개념

weak base ph and kb calculations

Weak base pH and Kb calculations show how partially reacting bases change water chemistry. Weak bases produce hydroxide ions when they dissolve by reacting with water molecules. Because the reaction only happens partly, these compounds are classified as weak bases.

Weak bases are common in nature and in technology. Ammonia is one major example. Global production of ammonia is typically well over 100 metric tons each year. It is used as an agricultural fertilizer, a starting material for chemical synthesis, and an ingredient in household cleaners.

When ammonia dissolves in water, it reacts only partially to form hydroxide ions. This is an acid-base reaction because H+ ions move from water molecules to ammonia molecules. Under typical conditions, only about 1% of the dissolved ammonia is present as NH4+ ions.

The video also shows how to calculate hydroxide ion concentration, pOH, and pH for a weak base solution. For a 0.25 M trimethylamine solution, an ICE table is used to track initial, change, and equilibrium concentrations. The Kb expression is then written with the equilibrium terms, and the x &lt;&lt; 0.25 assumption is checked with the 5% rule before solving for x as the hydroxide ion concentration. From there, pOH is found and pH is calculated.

A second example shows how to determine Kb from pH. For a 0.28 M ethylamine solution with a pH of 12.10, the pOH is first found, then the hydroxide ion concentration is calculated. An ICE table is built for ethylamine, ethylammonium ion, and hydroxide ion. After applying the 5% rule, the values are substituted into the Kb expression to find the base dissociation constant.

Weak Base pH and Kb Calculations

bronsted-lowry acids and bases

Proton Transfer in Acids and Bases

Acids and bases can be understood through proton transfer. Early scientists described acids by their sour taste, their effect on dyes, and their reaction with limestone, which releases carbon dioxide. Robert Boyle also noted that acid solutions can lose these properties after contact with alkali, or base, solutions. The modern view developed step by step. Humphry Davy showed that hydrogen is the essential part of acids. Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac then described acids as substances that neutralize...

water: a bronsted-lowry acid and base

Water as an Amphiprotic Substance

Water can act as both a Brønsted-Lowry acid and a Brønsted-Lowry base. When hydrogen fluoride dissolves in water, it donates protons to water. This is acid ionization. The products are hydronium ions and fluoride ions. Water can also accept protons from another substance. When pyridine dissolves in water, it accepts a proton from water molecules. This is base ionization. The products are hydroxide ions and pyridinium ions. These reactions show that water can play either role. A substance that...

ph scale

pH and pOH in Water

pH and pOH show how hydronium and hydroxide ions behave in water and other aqueous solutions. These ion concentrations are linked by the ion product of water, K w , so when one goes up, the other goes down. Because ion concentrations can differ by huge amounts, a logarithmic scale is used to describe them. pH is defined from the hydronium ion concentration, [H3O+], and pOH is the matching p-function for hydroxide ion concentration. These two values are also connected through the K w...

relative strengths of conjugate acid-base pairs

relative-strengths-of-conjugate-acid-base-pairs

How Ka and Kb Show Acid-Base Strength

Brønsted-Lowry acid-base chemistry is based on proton transfer. That idea helps show how the strength of an acid is linked to the strength of its conjugate base, and vice versa. Acid and base strength is measured with ionization constants, Ka and Kb, which tell how far an ionization reaction goes. For the conjugate pair HA and A−, the acid ionizes in water and the base reaction can be written for the partner species. When the two reactions are added, they give the autoionization of water. The...

strong acid and base solutions

Strong Acids, Strong Bases, and pH

Strong acids and strong bases change the pH of a solution by dissociating completely in water. A strong acid produces hydronium ions, which are H3O+ ions, and a strong base produces hydroxide ions, OH-. Because the dissociation is complete, the ion concentration can be found from the starting concentration and the molar ratio. For example, 0.20 M hydrobromic acid dissociates fully in water. It produces 0.20 M hydronium ions and 0.20 M bromide ions. A 0.015 M KOH solution also dissociates...

weak acid solutions

Weak Acid Equilibrium in Water

Weak acid equilibrium in water explains why many acids only partially react when dissolved. Most weak acid molecules stay in their original form, and only a small amount of hydronium ions forms. Weak acids are common in nature. They help create the tangy taste of citrus fruits, the stinging sensation from insect bites, and the smells linked to body odor. Acetic acid is a familiar weak acid. It is the main ingredient in vinegar. Its equation uses a double arrow to show that the reaction with...

weak base solutions

Weak base pH and Kb calculations show how partially reacting bases change water chemistry. Weak bases produce hydroxide ions when they dissolve by reacting with water molecules. Because the reaction only happens partly, these compounds are classified as weak bases. Weak bases are common in nature and in technology. Ammonia is one major example. Global production of ammonia is typically well over 100 metric tons each year. It is used as an agricultural fertilizer, a starting material for...

mixtures of acids

pH of Acid Mixtures

The pH of acid mixtures depends on the acids present, their dissociation constants, and their starting concentrations. When a solution contains two different acids, the pH can be found by choosing the method that fits their relative strengths. This makes acid mixtures a useful case for applying acid-base rules in chemistry. In a mixture of a strong acid and a weak acid, the strong acid dissociates completely and supplies almost all of the hydronium ions in the solution. The weak acid...

ions as acids and bases

Salt Hydrolysis and pH of Solutions

Salt hydrolysis explains why some salt solutions are acidic, basic, or neutral. Salts are ionic compounds made of cations and anions. In water, either ion may react with water through an acid or base ionization reaction. The pH of the solution depends on the relative acid-base strength of the ions in the salt. Ammonium chloride is a good example of an acidic salt. When it dissolves, it separates into ammonium ions and chloride ions. The ammonium ion is the conjugate acid of ammonia, so it can...

determining the ph of salt solutions

Salt Hydrolysis and pH in Solutions

Salt hydrolysis and pH in solutions depend on the ions released when a salt dissolves. Some ions react with water, while others do not. The balance between the cation and anion helps show whether the solution becomes acidic, basic, or neutral. Salts with pH-neutral anions and cations that produce hydronium ions give acidic solutions with pH below 7. Ammonium nitrate is one example. In NH4NO3, NO3− does not react with water, but NH4+ forms hydronium ions, so the solution is acidic. Other salts...

acid/base strengths and dissociation constants

acidbase-strengths-and-dissociation-constants

Acid and Base Strength in Water

Acid and base strength in water depends on how much a substance ionizes after it dissolves. If ionization is nearly complete, the substance is called strong. If only a small amount ionizes, it is called weak. Weak acids and weak bases are much more common than strong ones. The most common strong acids are HClO4, HCl, HBr, HI, HNO3, and H2SO4. The most common strong bases are LiOH, NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2, Sr(OH)2, and Ba(OH)2. These strong acids and bases ionize essentially completely in water. <br...

polyprotic acids

Stepwise Ionization of Polyprotic Acids

Polyprotic acids lose hydrogen ions in steps. The number of ionizable protons in a molecule determines whether an acid is monoprotic, diprotic, or triprotic. This video also shows that polyprotic bases can accept more than one proton. Monoprotic acids have one ionizable hydrogen atom per molecule. Examples include HCl, HNO3, and HCN. Their reactions with water form hydronium ions and the matching anion. Acetic acid, CH3CO2H, is also monoprotic because only the hydrogen in the carboxyl group...

acid strength and molecular structure

How Bonding Affects Acid Strength

Acid strength depends on bonding, electronegativity, and oxidation number. These factors help explain why some hydrogen compounds act as strong acids, while others behave as weak acids or bases. For binary acids, which are hydrogen compounds with one other nonmetal, acidity increases as the H-A bond gets weaker down a group. That is why the order for group 17 is HF &lt; HCl &lt; HBr &lt; HI, and for group 16 it is H2O &lt; H2S &lt; H2Se &lt; H2Te. Across a period, acid strength increases as...

lewis acids and bases

Electron-Pair Reactions in Acid-Base Chemistry

Electron-pair reactions explain Lewis acid-base chemistry. In 1923, G. N. Lewis described acids and bases by how they accept or donate a pair of electrons. When that electron pair forms a coordinate covalent bond, one atom supplies both bonding electrons. This bond is also called a dative bond. A simple example is the reaction of water with a hydrogen ion to make a hydronium ion. Ammonia can also combine with a hydrogen ion to form an ammonium ion. In both cases, the reaction creates a Lewis...

key terms and concepts

Learn how weak bases form hydroxide ions, then use ICE tables to find pOH, pH, and Kb for trimethylamine and ethylamine examples.

Weak Base pH and Kb Calculations | JoVE K12

chemistry

JoVE Core 화학은 간결하고 이해하기 쉬운 애니메이션을 통해 일반 화학 개념을 설명합니다. 또한, 과학자가 직접 고전실험과 연구실험을 진행하는 실사 영상을 제공합니다.

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Ohio’s Learning Standards and Model Curriculum

Interactions Of Matter

Chemical reactions

Minnesota Academic Standards in Science

1.2.1 9L.4.2.2.1

Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills

High School

CHEM.12

CHEM.12.C

Alabama Course of Study Science

Matter and Its Interactions

9-12.C.1.6.a

9-12.PS.3.6.c

new-york-state-science-learning-standards

New York State Science Learning Standards

HS. Chemical Reactions

HS-PS1-11.

Classifying Matter by State

Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes it undergoes. Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Matter is all around us; the air, ...

Classifying Matter by Composition

Matter: Pure Substances and Mixtures
According to its composition, the matter can be classified into two broad categories &mdash; pure substances and ...

Elements: Chemical Symbols and Isotopes

A chemical symbol is an abbreviation used to indicate an element or an atom of an element. For example, the symbol for mercury is Hg. The same symbol is ...

Molecules and Compounds

Atoms and Molecules

Everything in the universe is made up of matter, and matter is composed of a combination of elements. An atom is the smallest unit of ...

Solution Formation

There is no one solvent that can dissolve every type of solute. Some substances that readily dissolve in a certain solvent might be insoluble in a ...

Colloids

Children at play often make suspensions such as mixtures of mud and water, flour and water, or a suspension of solid pigments in water known as tempera ...

Construct an explanation to classify matter as a pure substance or mixture; homogeneous or heterogeneous; element or compound; solution, colloid or suspension.

PS.PSc.1.1

Phase Transitions

Whether solid, liquid, or gas, a substance&#39;s state depends on the order and arrangement of its particles (atoms, molecules, or ions). Particles in the ...

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Phase Transitions: Vaporization and Condensation

The physical form of a substance changes on changing its temperature. For example, raising the temperature of a liquid causes the liquid to vaporize ...

Vapor Pressure

When a liquid vaporizes in a closed container, gas molecules cannot escape. As these gas phase molecules move randomly about, they will occasionally ...

Clausius-Clapeyron Equation

The equilibrium between a liquid and its vapor depends on the temperature of the system; a rise in temperature causes a corresponding rise in the vapor ...

Phase Transitions: Melting and Freezing

Heating a crystalline solid increases the average energy of its atoms, molecules, or ions, and the solid gets hotter. At some point, the added energy ...

phase-transitions-sublimation-and-deposition

Phase Transitions: Sublimation and Deposition

Some solids can transition directly into the gaseous state, bypassing the liquid state, via a process known as sublimation. At room temperature and ...

Heating and Cooling Curves

When a substance&#8212;isolated from its environment&#8212;is subjected to heat changes, corresponding changes in temperature and phase of the substance ...

Phase Diagrams

A phase diagram combines plots of pressure versus temperature for the liquid-gas, solid-liquid, and solid-gas phase-transition equilibria of a substance. ...

Use models to compare the phases of matter and the physical changes they undergo.

PS.PSc.1.2

physical-and-chemical-properties-of-matter

Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter

The characteristics that enable us to distinguish one substance from another are called properties.

Physical Properties of Matter

A physical property is ...

molecular-comparison-of-gases-liquids-and-solids

Molecular Comparison of Gases, Liquids, and Solids

Particles in a solid are tightly packed together (fixed shape) and often arranged in a regular pattern; in a liquid, they are close together with no ...

Intermolecular vs Intramolecular Forces

Intermolecular forces (IMF) are electrostatic attractions arising from charge-charge interactions between molecules. The strength of the intermolecular ...

Intermolecular Forces

Atoms and molecules interact through bonds (or forces): intramolecular and intermolecular. The forces are electrostatic as they arise from interactions ...

comparing-intermolecular-forces-melting-point-boiling-point

Comparing Intermolecular Forces: Melting Point, Boiling Point, and Miscibility

Intermolecular forces are attractive forces that exist between molecules. They dictate several bulk properties, such as melting points, boiling points, ...

Carry out investigations to compare physical and chemical properties of matter.

PS.PSc.1.3

The Atomic Theory of Matter

The earliest recorded discussion of the basic structure of matter comes from ancient Greek philosophers. Leucippus and Democritus argued that all matter ...

Subatomic Particles

Dalton was only partially correct about the particles that make up matter. All matter is composed of atoms, and atoms are composed of three smaller ...

The Bohr Model

Following the work of Ernest Rutherford and his colleagues in the early twentieth century, the picture of atoms consisting of tiny dense nuclei surrounded ...

Emission Spectra

When solids, liquids, or condensed gases are heated sufficiently, they radiate some of the excess energy as light. Photons produced in this manner have a ...

The de Broglie Wavelength

In the macroscopic world, objects that are large enough to be seen by the naked eye follow the rules of classical physics. A billiard ball moving on a ...

The Uncertainty Principle

Werner Heisenberg considered the limits of how accurately one can measure properties of an electron or other microscopic particles. He determined that ...

Use models to interpret the data presented in Bohr diagrams and electron dot diagrams for neutral atoms of elements 1 through 18.

PS.PSc.1.4

Ions and Ionic Charges

In ordinary chemical reactions, the nucleus &mdash; which contains the protons and neutrons of each atom and thus identifies the element &mdash; remains ...

Use models to compare representations of atoms, ions, and isotopes.

PS.PSc.1.5

The Periodic Table

As early chemists discovered more elements, they realized that various elements could be grouped by their similar chemical behaviors. One such grouping ...

Periodic Classification of the Elements

The periodic table arranges atoms based on increasing atomic number so that elements with the same chemical properties recur periodically. When their ...

atomic-radii-and-effective-nuclear-charge

Atomic Radii and Effective Nuclear Charge

The elements in groups of the periodic table exhibit similar chemical behavior. This similarity occurs because the members of a group have the same number ...

Ionic Radii

Ionic radius is the measure used to describe the size of an ion. A cation always has fewer electrons and the same number of protons as the parent atom; it ...

Ionization Energy

The amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from a gaseous atom in its ground state is called its first ionization energy ...

Electron Affinity

The electron affinity (EA) is the energy change for adding an electron to a gaseous atom to form an anion (negative ion).



This process can be either ...

Alkali Metals

Group 1 elements are soft and shiny metallic solids. They are malleable, ductile, and good conductors of heat and electricity. The melting points of the ...

Halogens

Group 17 elements, known as halogens, are nonmetals. At room temperature, fluorine and chlorine are gases, bromine is a liquid, and iodine a solid. ...

Noble Gases


The elements in group 18 are noble gases (helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon). They earned the name &ldquo;noble&rdquo; because they were ...

Use the Periodic Table as a model to predict the relative properties (metallic/nonmetallic character, ionic charge, and reactivity) and arrangement of elements based on the pattern of valence electrons in the outermost energy levels of atoms.

PS.PSc.1.6

Types of Chemical Bonds

Chemical bonding theories were pioneered by American chemist Gilbert&#xA0;N. Lewis. He developed a model called the Lewis model to explain the type and ...

Ionic Bonding and Electron Transfer

Ions are atoms or molecules bearing an electrical charge. A cation (a positive ion) forms when a neutral atom loses one or more electrons from its valence ...

Covalent Bonding and Lewis Structures

Compared to ionic bonds, which results from the transfer of electrons between metallic and nonmetallic atoms, covalent bonds result from the mutual ...

Bonding in Metals

Metallic bonds are formed between two metal atoms. A simplified model to describe metallic bonding has been developed by Paul Dr&#xFC;de called the ...

Construct an explanation to classify the type of chemical bond that occurs (covalent, ionic, or metallic) in a given substance.

PS.PSc.2.1

Nomenclature of Alkanes

In the late 19th-century, the number of new chemical compounds discovered increased tremendously. Hence, the necessity arose to develop a naming system ...

Nomenclature of Alkenes

The IUPAC naming system for alkenes replaces -an- with -en- in the corresponding parent alkanes. Accordingly, a simple alkene replaces the -ane suffix of ...

Nomenclature of Alkynes

Alkynes are unsaturated hydrocarbons characterized by the presence of carbon-carbon triple bonds and have a general formula CnH2n-2. The nomenclature of ...

structure-and-nomenclature-of-alcohols-and-phenols

Structure and Nomenclature of Alcohols and Phenols

Overview 
Alcohols are one of the most important functional groups in organic chemistry. The name of alcohol comes from the hydrocarbon from which it is ...

Structure and Nomenclature of Ethers

Structure and Bonding
Ethers are organic compounds with an ether functional group which is characterized by an oxygen atom connected to two &#8212; ...

Use models to apply International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) conventions to name and write formulas for simple compounds.

PS.PSc.2.2

Understand types, properties, and structure of matter.

Weak Base pH and Kb Calculations

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