Name: protein regulation by covalent bonds
Uploaded: 2023-04-30T18:28:43.000Z
Duration: 2 min 4 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Next Generation Science Standards

High School

Life Science

from-molecules-to-organisms-structures-and-processes

From Molecules to Organisms: Structures and Processes

HS-LS1-1

Covalently Linked Protein Regulators

많은 단백질은 메틸 또는 아세틸 부분과 같은 작용기 및 유비퀴틴과 같은 작은 단백질을 포함하여 공유 결합 분자에 의해 조절됩니다.
공유 결합은 폴리펩티드 사슬의 특정 아미노산에서 발생합니다. 예를 들어, 인산기는 세린(serine), 트레오닌(threonine) 또는 티로신(tyrosine)과 공유 결합되어 있습니다. 메틸 및 아세틸 그룹은 라이신과 연결되어 있습니다. 유비퀴틴은 라이신, 시스테인, 세린 또는 트레오닌 잔기에 연결되어 있습니다.
효소 또는 효소 쌍은 이러한 번역 후 변형을 가역적으로 촉매합니다.아세틸전이효소는 단백질을 아세틸화할 수 있는 반면, 탈아세틸화효소는 나중에 그룹을 제거할 수 있습니다.
이러한 변형은 세포에서 단백질의 기능이나 국소화를 변경할 수 있습니다.
예를 들어, 히스톤 단백질의 아세틸화는 유전자 전사를 활성화하기 위해 DNA 구조를 열어 유전자 발현을 조절합니다. 반면에 히스톤 단백질의 메틸화는 구조를 조여서 전사를 억제하는 것으로 알려져 있습니다. 
또 다른 예는 스트레스에 대한 반응으로 여러 공유 변형을 겪는 다중영역 종양 억제 단백질인 p53입니다. UV 및 감마선과 같은 DNA 손상 물질에 노출되면 단백질이 인산화될 수 있습니다. 
인산화는 안정성을 향상시키고 p53을 활성화하여 방사선에 의해 손상된 DNA에 결합하고 돌연변이된 DNA를 가진 세포가 통제할 수 없이 분열하는 것을 방지합니다.
인산화 외에도 p53과 같은 단일 단백질 분자에서 발생하는 다양한 유형의 변형을 통해 세포주기 정지, DNA 복구 및 세포의 세포사멸과 같은 기능을 정밀하게 제어할 수 있습니다.

<ol>
	<li>1PDB ID: 1UBQ 
	Vijay-Kumar, S., Bugg, CE, Cook, W.J.(1987) 1.8A 해상도에서 정제된 유비퀴틴의 구조. J Mol Biol 194 : 531-544. DOI: 10.1016/0022-2836(87)90679-6</li>
	<li>H.M. 버먼, J. 웨스트브룩, Z. 펑, G. 길리랜드, T.N. 바트, H. 바이시그, I.N. 신디얄로프, P.E. 본. (2000) 단백질 데이터 뱅크 핵산 연구, 28: 235-242.</li>
	<li>D. Sehnal, A.S. Rose, J. Kovca, S.K. Burley, S. Velankar (2018) Mol*: 웹 분자 그래픽을 위한 공통 라이브러리 및 도구를 향하여 MolVA/EuroVis Proceedings. 도:10.2312/molva.20181103</li>
	<li>Alberts et al., 6판; 157-158, 165-166페이지</li>
	<li>Le, D. D., & Fujimori, D. G. (2012). 단백질 및 핵산 메틸화 효소 : 메커니즘 및 조절. Current opinion in chemical biology, 16(5-6), 507–515. 도:10.1016/j.cbpa.2012.09.014</li>
	<li>Khidekel, N., & Hsieh-Wilson, L. C. (2004). '분자 배전반(molecular switchboard)' - 단백질에 대한 공유 변형과 전사에 미치는 영향. 유기 및 생체 분자 화학, 2(1), 1-7.</li>
	<li>Maclaine, N. J., & Hupp, T. R. (2009). 인산화에 의한 p53의 조절: 별개의 신호가 p53 경로에 어떻게 통합되는지에 대한 모델. 노화, 1(5), 490.</li>
</ol>

공유 결합 단백질 조절인자

단백질은 종종 환경 변화에 반응하여 다양한 유형의 번역 후 변형을 겪을 수 있습니다. 이러한 변형은 단백질들의 기능과 안정성에 중요한 역할을 합니다. 공유결합으로 연결된 분자에는 메틸, 아세틸, 인산기와 같은 작용기뿐 아니라 유비퀴틴과 같은 작은 단백질도 포함됩니다. 약 200가지의 서로 다른 유형의 공유 결합 조절자가 확인되었습니다.

이 그룹은 단백질의 특정 아미노산을 변형합니다. 인산염 그룹은 아미노산 세린, 트레오닌 및 티로신에만 공유 결합될 수 있는 반면, 메틸 및 아세틸 그룹은 라이신에만 연결될 수 있습니다. 이 그룹은 효소 또는 효소 쌍에 의해 단백질에 추가되거나 제거됩니다. 예를 들어, 아세틸트랜스퍼라제는 단백질에 아세틸기를 추가하고, 데아세틸라제는 이를 제거할 수 있습니다. 이러한 각 변형자는 변형 수와 위치에 따라 부착된 단백질에 서로 다른 영향을 미칠 수 있습니다. 단일 유비퀴틴 분자가 특정 세포 표면 수용체에 공유결합으로 연결되면 이 단백질은 세포내이입의 표적이 됩니다. 반면에 함께 연결된 여러 유비퀴틴이 이 단백질에 부착되면 단백질 분해의 표적으로 표시됩니다.

단일 단백질은 그 기능을 제어하기 위해 동시에 여러 가지 변형을 겪을 수 있습니다. 다중 공유 결합 변형에 의해 조절되는 단백질의 잘 알려진 예 중 하나는 종양 억제 단백질인 p53입니다. p53은 방사선 및 발암 물질을 포함한 다양한 유형의 스트레스에 반응하여 다양한 변형을 겪습니다. 일부 변형에는 UV 및 감마선에 반응하여 인산화, 아세틸화 및 수모화(sumoylation)가 포함됩니다. 변형 부위와 유형은 스트레스 요인에 따라 달라질 수 있습니다. 연구에 따르면 UV와 감마 방사선은 세린 33의 인산화를 초래할 수 있지만, 세린 392는 UV에 노출되면 인산화될 수 있지만 감마 방사선은 그렇지 않습니다. 저산소증, 항대사물질, 액티노마이신 D에 대한 노출과 같은 다른 종류의 스트레스는 p53의 아세틸화를 초래할 수 있습니다. 변형은 세포 유형과 유기체에 따라 다를 수도 있습니다.

단백질은 종종 환경 변화에 반응하여 다양한 유형의 번역 후 변형을 겪을 수 있습니다. 이러한 수정은 ...

Education

교육

JoVE Core

Cell Biology

세포생물학

Unit 1

제1단원

Protein Function

단백질 기능

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

주요 용어 및 개념

protein regulation by covalent bonds

Protein regulation by covalent bonds helps control how cells respond to changing conditions. A covalent bond is a strong chemical link, and in this context it can change how a protein behaves.

Some regulators work by attaching a chemical group directly to a protein. This covalent change can alter the protein's activity, its location in the cell, or how long it stays active. Because the change is built into the protein itself, it can have a strong effect on cell function.

Covalently linked protein regulators are an important part of cell control and signaling. They help cells turn protein functions on or off at the right time. This type of regulation is a key idea in molecular biology and protein function.

Protein Regulation by Covalent Bonds

ligand binding sites

Ligand Binding Sites in Proteins

Ligand binding sites are specific parts of a protein where a ligand can attach. A ligand is a molecule that binds to another molecule, often to help start or change a biological process. These sites matter because the shape and chemistry of the protein help determine which ligands can fit and bind. Proteins do not bind every ligand in the same way. The binding site provides a matching surface that supports a close interaction. In many cases, this interaction is important for how cells respond...

protein-protein interfaces

Protein Binding Surfaces and Contacts

Protein binding surfaces and contacts help proteins recognize and attach to each other. These interfaces are the regions where two proteins meet and interact. They are important for many cell processes and for how proteins work together. A protein-protein interface is not just a random touch point. It is shaped by the three-dimensional form of each protein. The matching surfaces allow a stable interaction to form when the proteins fit together well. Studying these interfaces helps explain how...

conserved binding sites

Conserved Binding Sites in Protein Families

Conserved binding sites are regions on proteins that stay similar across related proteins. These shared areas often help proteins interact with the same molecules. For this reason, they are useful clues when comparing protein families. A conserved site can help identify where a protein binds. It can also show which parts of the protein are important for function. When the same pattern appears in several proteins, it suggests that the site has been kept through evolution. Scientists look at...

cofactors and coenzymes

Enzyme Helpers: Metals and Vitamins

Enzyme helpers include cofactors and coenzymes. Enzymes are proteins made of amino acids, and the functional groups on those amino acids can drive many chemical reactions through ionic interactions or acid-base reactions. But amino acids alone cannot handle oxidation-reduction and group transfer reactions, so they need non-protein helpers called cofactors. Cofactors are often described as the chemical teeth of an enzyme. They can be metal ions or organic molecules called coenzymes. These...

cooperative allosteric transitions

Allosteric Changes in Protein Shape

Allosteric changes in protein shape help explain how some proteins switch between active and inactive states. These transitions are cooperative, which means a change in one part of the protein can affect other parts of the same molecule. The video focuses on how these shifts in shape support protein function. It also shows that allosteric transitions can be described with different models. In the concerted model, the protein changes shape as a whole. In the sequential model, the change happens...

protein kinases and phosphatases

Protein Kinases and Phosphatases in Cell Control

Protein kinases and phosphatases help control how proteins work in cells. Kinases add phosphate groups to proteins. Phosphatases remove those phosphate groups. This phosphorylation and dephosphorylation process can change a protein’s shape and activity. It is one way cells turn protein function on or off at the right time. These changes also help cells respond to signals and manage many cell activities. Together, protein kinases and phosphatases keep cellular signaling balanced. When one adds...

gtpases and their regulation

GTPase Molecular Switches and Control

GTPases are molecular switches that help control cell activity. They bind guanosine triphosphate, or GTP, and can change between active and inactive states. This switch-like behavior makes them important in many cell processes. The protein is active when GTP is bound and inactive when guanosine diphosphate, or GDP, is bound. GTPases can also turn themselves off by breaking down GTP into GDP. This built-in control helps cells regulate when the protein is on or off. Their activity is regulated...

covalently linked protein regulators

Protein regulation by covalent bonds helps control how cells respond to changing conditions. A covalent bond is a strong chemical link, and in this context it can change how a protein behaves. Some regulators work by attaching a chemical group directly to a protein. This covalent change can alter the protein's activity, its location in the cell, or how long it stays active. Because the change is built into the protein itself, it can have a strong effect on cell function. Covalently linked...

protein complexes with interchangeable parts

protein-complexes-with-interchangeable-parts

Modular Protein Complexes in Cells

Protein complexes in cells can be built from interchangeable parts. This modular design lets some complexes share common subunits while still changing their behavior. A well-known example is the ubiquitin ligase complex called SCF. SCF stands for Skp1-Cullin-F-box, and it helps attach ubiquitin, a small protein tag, to target proteins. The core of SCF stays the same, but the F-box protein can change. The interchangeable F-box subunit gives the complex its specificity. Different F-box proteins...

mechanical protein function

Proteins That Generate Cell Movement

Mechanical proteins help cells and tissues move. They turn chemical energy into force and motion. This process is important in many biological systems. These proteins are also called motor proteins. They interact with cell structures and can produce directed movement. In muscle cells, they support contraction. In other cells, they help with transport and shape changes. Mechanical protein function is a key part of how living systems work. It links protein activity to movement at the cellular...

structural protein function

Structural Proteins in Cells and Tissues

Structural proteins help cells and tissues keep their shape and strength. They are an important part of living systems because they provide support where it is needed most. Many structural proteins form fibers or other sturdy forms that resist stretching and wear. These proteins work as building materials in the body and help keep structures stable over time. Examples of structural proteins include collagen, actin, myosin, and keratin. Each one supports a different part of the body, but all...

protein networks

Mapping Protein Interaction Networks

Protein interaction networks show how proteins work together inside a cell. These networks help scientists see which proteins connect with each other and how those links support cell activity. Researchers often use online tools to build and study these networks. The transcript points to IntAct and STRING as examples of resources that can help predict and organize protein interactions. These tools make it easier to compare protein links and look for patterns in the network. Protein networks...

key terms and concepts

Learn how covalent bonds can regulate proteins by changing activity, location, and stability. A clear K12 summary of protein control in cells.

Protein Regulation by Covalent Bonds | JoVE K12

cell biology

JoVE Core Cell Biology illustrates complex cellular processes in easy-to-understand yet comprehensive animated video lessons. This collection focuses on the essential components and functions of cells, including organelles and membranes, cellular transport, and cell energetics. It is complemented by scientist-in-action videos that demonstrate the application of cell biology in real-world research experiments.

Characteristics of Life

Biology is a natural science that studies life and living organisms, including their structure, function, development, interactions, evolution, ...

https://cloudfront.jove.com/files/media/science-education/science-education-thumbs/10647.jpg

Cell Structure

Background
Cells represent the most basic biological units of all organisms, whether it be simple, single-celled organisms like bacteria, or large, ...

Visualizing Onion and Cheek Cells
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Cytoplasm

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The Nucleus

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The Central Dogma

The DNA Helix

Nucleic Acids

DNA as a Genetic Template

Structure of a Gene

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Chromosome Structure

Base-pairing and DNA Repair

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RNA Structure

The basic structure of RNA consists of a string of ribonucleotides attached by phosphodiester bonds. Although most RNA is single-stranded, it can form ...

Protein Families

Types of RNA

Three main types of RNA are involved in protein synthesis: messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). These RNAs perform diverse ...

Conservation of Protein Domains

Transcription

Transcription is the synthesis of RNA from a DNA sequence by RNA polymerase. It is the first step in producing a protein from a gene sequence. ...

Globular and Fibrous Proteins

Translation

Translation is the process of synthesizing proteins from the genetic information carried by messenger RNA (mRNA). Following transcription, it constitutes ...

Intrinsically Disordered Proteins

Ribosomes

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Protein Complex Assembly

Protein and Protein Structures

Conjugated Proteins

Proteins: From Genes to Degradation

Amyloid Fibrils

What are Proteins?

Proteins are polymers of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. Proteins and polypeptides are interchangeably used to refer to long chains of amino ...

Ligand Binding Sites

Protein Organization

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Protein-Protein Interfaces

Protein Folding

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Conserved Binding Sites

Cofactors and Coenzymes

Enzymes are proteins made of amino acids. The functional group of each constituent amino acid catalyzes a wide variety of chemical reactions via ionic ...

Cooperative Allosteric Transitions

Protein Kinases and Phosphatases

GTPases and their Regulation

Protein Complexes with Interchangeable Parts

Mechanical Protein Function

Structural Protein Function

Protein Networks

Construct an explanation based on evidence for how the structure of DNA determines the structure of proteins, which carry out the essential functions of life through systems of specialized cells. [Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include identification of specific cell or tissue types, whole body systems, specific protein structures and functions, or the biochemistry of protein synthesis.]

Levels of Organization

Biological organization is the classification of biological structures, ranging from atoms at the bottom of the hierarchy to the Earth&#x27;s biosphere. ...

Animal and Plant Cell Structure

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structural-organization-of-the-human-body-an-overview

Structural Organization of the Human Body: An Overview

It is convenient to consider the body&#39;s structures in terms of fundamental levels of organization that increase in complexity: subatomic particles, ...

Overview of Human Digestion

The human body contains a monogastric digestive system. In a monogastric digestive system, the stomach only contains one chamber in which it digests food. ...

Anatomy of the Intestines

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Accessory Organs

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Lipid Digestion

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Protein Digestion

Protein digestion begins in the stomach, where the highly acidic environment can easily disrupt protein structure by exposing the peptide bonds of ...

Carbohydrate Digestion

Carbohydrate digestion and metabolism break down simple and complex carbohydrates from food into saccharides (i.e., sugars) for the body to use as energy. ...

What is a Nervous System?

Overview

The nervous system is the collection of specialized cells responsible for maintaining an organism&rsquo;s internal environment and coordinating ...

The Parasympathetic Nervous System

Overview

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The Sympathetic Nervous System

Overview

The sympathetic nervous system&mdash;one of the two major divisions of the autonomic nervous system&mdash;is activated in times of stress. It ...

Oogenesis

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Fertilization

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What is the Skeletal System?

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An Introduction to the Zebrafish: Danio rerio

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Physiology of the Circulatory System

Homeostasis
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Anatomy of the Circulatory System

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Measuring Blood Pressure
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Anatomy of the Heart

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Measuring Circulatory System Function in Humans
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Blood Flow

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What Are Osmoregulation and Excretion?

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Blood Withdrawal I

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Blood collection is a common requirement for ...

Kidney Structure

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Blood Withdrawal II

Source: Kay Stewart, RVT, RLATG, CMAR; Valerie A. Schroeder, RVT, RLATG. University of Notre Dame, IN
The collection of blood from mice and rats for ...

What is the Immune System?

Overview

The immune system comprises diverse biological structures and processes that protect the body from disease. These processes can be classified ...

Bone Remodeling

Bone remodeling is a continuous and balanced process of bone resorption by osteoclasts and bone formation by osteoblasts. In adults, it helps maintain ...

Spermatogenesis

Spermatogenesis is the process by which haploid sperm cells are produced in the male testes. It starts with stem cells located close to the outer rim of ...

Bone Structure

Within the skeletal system, the structure of a bone, or osseous tissue, can be exemplified in a long bone, like the femur, where there are two types of ...

Breathing

The process of breathing, inhaling and exhaling, involves the coordinated movement of the chest wall, the lungs, and the muscles that move them. Two ...

Develop and use a model to illustrate the hierarchical organization of interacting systems that provide specific functions within multicellular organisms. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on functions at the organism system level such as nutrient uptake, water delivery, and organism movement in response to neural stimuli. An example of an interacting system could be an artery depending on the proper function of elastic tissue and smooth muscle to regulate and deliver the proper amount of blood within the circulatory system.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include interactions and functions at the molecular or chemical reaction level.]

HS-LS1-2

What is Homeostasis?

Maintaining homeostasis requires that the body continuously maintain its internal conditions. Each physiological condition has a particular set point, ...

Negative and Positive Feedback

Homeostatic Imbalance

Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment within the body, which is crucial for the proper functioning of cells, tissues, organs, ...

Plan and conduct an investigation to provide evidence that feedback mechanisms maintain homeostasis. [Clarification Statement: Examples of investigations could include heart rate response to exercise, stomate response to moisture and temperature, and root development in response to water levels.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include the cellular processes involved in the feedback mechanism.]

HS-LS1-3

Protein Regulation by Covalent Bonds

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