Name: carbohydrate structure and bonding
Uploaded: 2023-04-30T18:28:47.000Z
Duration: 3 min 25 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Florida Department of Education

High School

Life Science

SC.912.L.18

SC.912.L.18.1

Chemistry of Carbohydrates

Koolhydraten zijn verbindingen die zijn samengesteld uit koolstof, waterstof en zuurstof. Deze moleculen ontlenen hun naam aan de empirische formule van veel monosacchariden met twee waterstofatomen en één zuurstofatoom voor elke koolstof. Simpele koolhydraten zijn monomeren die monosacchariden worden genoemd en dimeren die disacchariden worden genoemd.Complexe koolhydraten zijn polymeren die polysacchariden worden genoemd. Een monosaccharide kan worden geclassificeerd als een aldose of een ketose door zijn functionele groep. Degenen met een aldehydegroep worden aldosen genoemd en degenen met een ketongroep worden ketosen genoemd.Monosacchariden bevatten gewoonlijk drie tot zeven koolstofatomen in hun ketens. Elk van de koolstofatomen kan worden genummerd beginnend met nummer één vanaf het uiteinde dat het dichtst bij de carbonylkoolstof ligt. Suikers kunnen niet-vlakke ringstructuren vormen en komen in de natuur meestal voor in deze cyclische vorm.Ringstructuren ontstaan wanneer de carbonylgroep via een condensatiereactie reageert met een hydroxylgroep aan het andere uiteinde van het molecuul. De koolstof die aan het reactieve aldehyde of keton is gehecht, staat ook bekend als de anomere koolstof. Deze koolstof-zuurstofringstructuren kunnen bestaan als twee anomeren:alfa en bèta.Anomeren zijn structurele isomeren die verschillen in de configuratie op de carbonylkoolstof. In de alfa-vorm bevinden de hydroxylgroep op de anomere koolstof en de CH2OH-groep op de laatste koolstof in de ring zich aan weerszijden van de ring, en in de bètavorm bevinden ze zich aan dezelfde kant. Een vergelijkbare naamgevingsconventie wordt gebruikt voor bindingen die de monosacchariden met andere moleculen verbinden.Bindingen gevormd onder de ringstructuur staan bekend als alfa-bindingen, terwijl die boven de ring bekend staan als bèta-bindingen. De nummers in de naam van glycosische bindingen geven de koolstofgetallen aan van de monosacchariden die bij de bindingen betrokken zijn. Wanneer twee monosacchariden met elkaar verbonden zijn via glycosidische bindingen, vormen ze disacchariden.Glycosidische bindingen zijn covalente bindingen die worden gevormd wanneer de hydroxylgroep van een monosaccharide reageert met de anomere koolstof van een ander monosaccharide met de eliminatie van een watermolecuul. Polysacchariden of complexe koolhydraten zijn een keten van monosacchariden die bij elkaar worden gehouden door covalente bindingen. Variatie in de glycosidische bindingen die in deze moleculen aanwezig zijn, kan resulteren in verschillende soorten polysacchariden van hetzelfde monosaccharide.Glucosemoleculen gekoppeld via β-1, 4-glycosidische bindingen vormen cellulose, een in water onoplosbaar polysaccharide. Glucosemoleculen gekoppeld via α-1, 4-glycosidische bindingen vormen amylose, een in water oplosbaar polymeer en een bestanddeel van zetmeel. Zetmeel en cellulose zijn polysacchariden die in planten voorkomen.Glycogeen is een in water onoplosbaar molecuul gemaakt van glucose gekoppeld door α-1, 4-glycosidebindingen en intermitterende vertakkende doorgaande α-1, 6-glycosidische bindingen. Glycogeen dient als opslagpolysaccharide bij dieren.

chemistry of carbohydrates

Koolhydraten zijn een essentieel onderdeel van de voeding van mens en dier. Granen, fruit en groenten zijn natuurlijke bronnen van koolhydraten die het lichaam van energie voorzien, vooral via glucose, een eenvoudige suiker die een bestanddeel is van zetmeel en een ingrediënt in veel basisvoedingsmiddelen. De stoichiometrische formule (CH2O)n, waarbij n het aantal koolstofatomen in het molecuul is, vertegenwoordigt koolhydraten. Met andere woorden: de verhouding van koolstof tot waterstof en zuurstof is 1:2:1 in koolhydraatmoleculen. Deze formule verklaart ook de oorsprong van de term ‘koolhydraten’: de componenten zijn koolstof (‘koolstof’) en water (‘hydraat’). Koolhydraten kunnen worden ingedeeld in eenvoudig en complex. Monosachariden en disachariden zijn eenvoudige koolhydraten. Polysachariden zijn complexe koolhydraten. Monosachariden Monosachariden zijn eenvoudige suikers, waarvan glucose de meest voorkomende is. Bij monosachariden varieert het aantal koolstofatomen gewoonlijk van drie tot zeven. Als de suiker een aldehydegroep heeft (de functionele groep met de structuur R-CHO), is het een aldose, en als het een ketongroep heeft (de functionele groep met de structuur RC(=O)R'), is het een ketose. Afhankelijk van het aantal koolstofatomen in de suiker kunnen het triosen (drie koolstofatomen), pentosen (vijf koolstofatomen) en/of hexosen (zes koolstofatomen) zijn. Galactose en fructose zijn andere veel voorkomende monosachariden. Glucose, galactose en fructose zijn isomere monosachariden (hexosen), wat betekent dat ze dezelfde chemische formule hebben, maar enigszins verschillende structuren hebben. Glucose en galactose zijn aldosen en fructose is een ketose. Monosachariden kunnen voorkomen als een lineaire keten of als ringvormige moleculen. In waterige oplossingen zijn ze meestal in ringvorm. Glucose in ringvorm kan twee verschillende hydroxylgroepschikkingen (OH) hebben rond de anomere koolstof (koolstof 1 die asymmetrisch wordt tijdens het ringvormingsproces). Als de hydroxylgroep zich in de suiker onder koolstofnummer 1 bevindt, bevindt deze zich in de alfa (α)-positie, en als deze zich boven het vlak bevindt, bevindt deze zich in de bèta-positie (β). <h4>Disachariden</h4> Disachariden ontstaan wanneer twee monosachariden een dehydratatiereactie ondergaan (of een condensatiereactie of dehydratatiesynthese). Tijdens dit proces combineert de hydroxylgroep van een monosacharide met de waterstof van een ander monosacharide, waardoor een watermolecuul vrijkomt en een covalente binding wordt gevormd. Dit wordt een glycosidische binding genoemd. Glycosidische bindingen (of glycosidische bindingen) kunnen van het alfa- of bèta-type zijn. Er wordt een alfa-binding gevormd wanneer de OH-groep op koolstof-1 van de eerste glucose zich onder het ringvlak bevindt, en een bèta-binding wordt gevormd wanneer de OH-groep op koolstof-1 zich boven het ringvlak bevindt. De meest voorkomende disacharide is sucrose, of tafelsuiker, die is samengesteld uit glucose- en fructosemonomeren. <h4>Polysachariden</h4> Een lange keten van monosachariden verbonden door glycosidische bindingen is een polysacharide. De keten kan vertakt of onvertakt zijn en kan verschillende soorten monosachariden bevatten. Het molecuulgewicht kan 100.000 dalton of meer zijn, afhankelijk van het aantal verbonden monomeren. Zetmeel, glycogeen, cellulose en chitine zijn voorbeelden van polysachariden. Planten slaan zetmeel op in de vorm van suikers. In planten bevat een mengsel van amylose en amylopectine (beide glucosepolymeren) deze suikers. Zetmeel omvat glucosemonomeren die met elkaar zijn verbonden door α 1-4- of α 1-6-glycosidische bindingen. De getallen 1-4 en 1-6 verwijzen naar het aantal koolstofatomen van de twee residuen die zijn samengevoegd om de binding te vormen. Glycogeen is de opslagvorm van glucose bij mensen en andere gewervelde dieren en bestaat uit monomeren van glucose. Glycogeen is het dierlijke equivalent van zetmeel en is een sterk vertakt molecuul dat gewoonlijk wordt opgeslagen in lever- en spiercellen. Wanneer de bloedsuikerspiegel daalt, wordt glycogeen afgebroken en komt er glucose vrij. Cellulose is het meest voorkomende natuurlijke biopolymeer. Cellulose bestaat grotendeels uit de celwand van een plant. Dit zorgt voor structurele ondersteuning van de cel. Hout en papier zijn meestal celluloseachtig van aard. Glucosemonomeren omvatten cellulose die β 1-4 glycosidische bindingen met elkaar verbindt

Carbohydrates are an essential part of the diet in humans and animals. Grains, fruits, and vegetables are natural sources of carbohydrates that provide ...

Education

JoVE Core

Cell Biology

Celbiologie

Unit 1

Eenheid 1

Biochemistry of the Cell

Biochemie van de cel

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

BELANGRIJKE TERMEN EN CONCEPTEN

Scheikunde van koolhydraten

carbohydrate structure and bonding

Carbohydrates are built from sugar units and the bonds that link them. Their chemistry explains how simple sugars join to form larger molecules. It also helps show why carbohydrates have different structures and functions.

The video focuses on the main sugar types found in carbohydrates. These include monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides are single sugar units. Disaccharides contain two sugar units, while polysaccharides are long chains of many sugar units.

The transcript also highlights how these sugar units connect through chemical bonds. These links change the size and structure of the carbohydrate molecule. That structural change is important because it affects how the molecule behaves in living systems.

Carbohydrate Structure and Bonding

the periodic table and organismal elements

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Lipid molecules are built from hydrocarbon chains and a few key structural parts. Their shape helps explain why they behave differently from many other biological molecules. In high school biology, this structure is often linked to how lipids store energy and help form cell membranes. Some lipids are made from fatty acids joined to other small molecules. Triglycerides contain glycerol and three fatty acids, while phospholipids contain glycerol, two fatty acids, and a phosphate group. These...

Carbohydrates are built from sugar units and the bonds that link them. Their chemistry explains how simple sugars join to form larger molecules. It also helps show why carbohydrates have different structures and functions. The video focuses on the main sugar types found in carbohydrates. These include monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides are single sugar units. Disaccharides contain two sugar units, while polysaccharides are long chains of many sugar units. The...

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Explore carbohydrate structure, from monosaccharides to polysaccharides, and see how chemical bonds link sugar units into larger molecules.

Carbohydrate Structure and Bonding | JoVE K12

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SC.912.L.18.2

Macromolecules

Biomolecules
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Lipid-derived Compounds in the Human Body

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Amino acids

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Peptide Bonds

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What are Proteins?

Protein and Protein Structures

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Globular Proteins

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Asymmetric Lipid Bilayer

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Describe the structures of fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids. Explain the functions of lipids in living organisms. Identify some reactions that fatty acids undergo. Relate the structure and function of cell membranes.

SC.912.L.18.3

Ligand Binding Sites

Cofactors and Coenzymes

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Ligand Binding and Linkage

Cooperative Allosteric Transitions

Ribozymes

Enzyme Activity

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Describe the structures of proteins and amino acids. Explain the functions of proteins in living organisms. Identify some reactions that amino acids undergo. Relate the structure and function of enzymes.

SC.912.L.18.4

Chemiosmosis

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Electron Transport Chain: Complex III and IV

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The Electron Transport Chain

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the-supercomplexes-in-the-crista-membrane

The Supercomplexes in the Crista Membrane

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ATP Synthase: Structure

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ATP Synthase: Mechanism

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The ADP/ATP Carrier Protein

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ATP Yield

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Discuss the use of chemiosmotic gradients for ATP production in chloroplasts and mitochondria.

SC.912.L.18.5

Fermentation

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Biofuels: Producing Ethanol from Cellulosic Material

Source: Laboratories of Margaret Workman and Kimberly Frye - Depaul University
In this experiment, cellulosic material (such as corn stalks, leaves, ...

Discuss the role of anaerobic respiration in living things and in human society.

SC.912.L.18.6

Photosynthesis

Autotrophs

Almost all living organisms on Earth depend on photosynthesis, which is the process that converts sunlight energy into a simple sugar called ...

What is Photosynthesis?

All living organisms on Earth are directly or indirectly dependent on photosynthesis. It is the only biological process that can capture energy from ...

The Anatomy of Chloroplasts

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Photosystems

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The Photochemical Reaction Center

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The Antenna Complex

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the-z-scheme-of-electron-transport-in-photosynthesis

The Z-Scheme of Electron Transport in Photosynthesis

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The Calvin Benson Cycle

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Identify the reactants, products, and basic functions of photosynthesis.

SC.912.L.18.7

A. All living things are composed of four basic categories of macromolecules and share the same basic needs for life.

B. Living organisms acquire the energy they need for life processes through various metabolic pathways (primarily photosynthesis and cellular respiration).

C. Chemical reactions in living things follow basic rules of chemistry and are usually regulated by enzymes.

D. The unique chemical properties of carbon and water make life on Earth possible.

Carbohydrate Structure and Bonding

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