Name: cell cycle stages in mitosis
Uploaded: 2019-03-11T09:21:14.000Z
Duration: 2 min 3 s
Channel: JoVE

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Mitosis and Cytokinesis

Mitoza, składająca się z pięciu unikalnych etapów, jest formą podziału, w której materiał genetyczny komórki jest podzielony między dwie komórki potomne.  Po pierwsze, podczas profazy u ludzi, chromatyna nukleinowa kondensuje się w chromosomy w kształcie litery X złożone z par chromatyd siostrzanych przyłączonych w połączeniach centromerowych.
Jednocześnie na zewnątrz jądra dwie organelle w kształcie litery L zwane centrosomami migrują na przeciwległe strony komórki. Gdy to robią, pręciki mikrotubul zaczynają rosnąć z każdego z nich, albo w kierunku wnętrza komórki, albo na zewnątrz, tworząc wrzeciono przypominające pajęczynę.
Następnie otoczka jądrowa rozpuszcza się podczas prometafazy, odsłaniając chromosomy przed inną zawartością komórki. Struktury białkowe pojawiają się również po obu stronach centromerów, po jednej dla każdej chromatyny.
Gdy te kinetochory się uformują, wydłużające się wewnętrzne mikrotubule przyczepiają się do nich, przy czym każda siostrzana chromatyda jest przywiązana do innego bieguna komórkowego.
Mitoza następnie przechodzi do metafazy, w której aparat wrzeciona przestawia chromosomy tak, aby były podobnie zorientowane w ustalonym rzędzie wzdłuż równika komórki.
W przypadku anafazy mikrotubule z utrwalonymi kinetochorami skracają się, a chromatydy siostrzane, obecnie indywidualnie określane jako chromosomy, są rozsuwane. Ta i inna dynamika mikrotubul również wydłuża komórkę.
Wreszcie chromosomy lądują po przeciwnych stronach komórki podczas telofazy, gdzie na wrzecionie aparat rozpada się. Materiał genetyczny rozluźnia się i powstają dwie otoczki jądrowe, po jednej wokół każdego zestawu chromosomów.
Podczas telofazy, w odrębnym procesie zwanym cytokinezą, komórka jest dzielona cytoplazmatycznie . Tak więc końcowym wynikiem mitozy jest para komórek genetycznie identyczna z ich prekursorem.

Guertin, David A., Susanne Trautmann i Dannel McCollum. "Cytokineza u eukariontów." Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 66, nr 2 (1 czerwca 2002): 155–78. [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1128/MMBR.66.2.155-178.2002" target="__blank">Źródło</a>]

mitoza i cytokineza

U eukariontów cykl podziału komórki jest podzielony na odrębne, skoordynowane procesy komórkowe, które obejmują wzrost komórek, replikację DNA/duplikację chromosomów, dystrybucję chromosomów do komórek potomnych i wreszcie podział komórki. Cykl komórkowy jest ściśle regulowany przez systemy regulacyjne, a także sygnały zewnątrzkomórkowe, które wpływają na proliferację komórek.

Procesy cyklu komórkowego zachodzą przez około 24 godziny (w typowych komórkach ludzkich) i składają się z dwóch głównych, dających się wyróżnić etapów. Pierwszym etapem jest replikacja DNA podczas fazy S interfazy. Drugi etap to faza mitotyczna (M), która polega na rozdzieleniu zduplikowanych chromosomów na dwa nowe jądra (mitoza) i podziale cytoplazmatycznym (cytokineza). Obie fazy oddzielają przerwy (przerwy G1 i G2), podczas których komórka przygotowuje się do replikacji i podziału.

<h4>Proces mitozy</h4>

Mitozę można podzielić na pięć odrębnych etapów — profazę, prometafazę, metafazę, anafazę i telofazę. Cytokineza, która rozpoczyna się podczas anafazy lub telofazy (w zależności od komórki), jest częścią fazy M, ale nie częścią mitozy.

<h4>Profaza</h4>

Gdy komórka wchodzi w mitozę, jej replikowane chromosomy zaczynają się kondensować i stają się widoczne jako nitkowate struktury za pomocą białek zwanych kondensynami. Aparat wrzeciona mitotycznego zaczyna tworzyć się pomiędzy centrosomami — które zostały zduplikowane w fazie S — i migruje do przeciwnych biegunów komórki. Wrzeciono składa się ze struktur nitkowatych zwanych mikrotubulami, które składają się z monomerów białka tubuliny. Mikrotubule wrzeciona zaczynają rozciągać się w kierunku skondensowanych chromosomów. Jąderko, składnik jądra wytwarzający rybosomy, zanika, wskazując na zbliżający się rozkład jądra.

<h4>Prometafaza</h4>

Podczas prometafazy włókna mikrotubul z aparatu wrzecionowego nadal rosną, a chromosomy kończą kondensację. Otoczka jądrowa ulega całkowitemu rozpadowi, uwalniając chromosomy. Niektóre mikrotubule przyczepiają się do uwolnionych chromosomów, wiążąc się ze strukturą białkową zwaną kinetochorem, która jest obecna na centromerze każdej pary chromatyd siostrzanych. Mikrotubule wrzecionowe z przeciwnych biegunów przyczepiają się do kinetochorów i wychwytują skondensowane pary chromatyd siostrzanych. Mikrotubule wrzeciona, które nie przyczepiają się do chromosomów — mikrotubule polarne i astralne — pomagają rozsuwać wrzeciona i zakotwiczyć ich bieguny w błonie komórkowej.

<h4>Metafaza</h4>

Mikrotubule wrzeciona ustawiają każdą parę w pełni skondensowanych chromatyd siostrzanych wzdłuż równika komórki — na płytce metafazowej. Komórka jest teraz gotowa do podziału.

<h4>Anafaza</h4>

Mikrotubule z przeciwległych biegunów wrzeciona, które są przymocowane do struktury kinetochoru, skracają i oddzielają chromatydy siostrzane w centromerze. Białka kohezyjne utrzymujące razem chromatydy ulegają teraz rozpadowi. Skrócenie mikrotubul kinetochorowych powoduje, że każda chromatyda z pary — obecnie nazywana chromosomami — migruje do przeciwnego bieguna.

<h4>Telofaza</h4>

Gdy chromosomy dotrą do przeciwnych biegunów komórki, ulegają dekondensacji i rozwinięciu, tworząc chromatynę. Włókna mikrotubul wrzeciona depolimeryzują do monomerów tubuliny, które są następnie wykorzystywane jako elementy cytoszkieletu w komórkach potomnych. Otoczki jądrowe ponownie łączą się wokół każdego zestawu chromosomów.

<h4>Cytokineza</h4>

Podczas cytokinezy w komórkach zwierzęcych włókna aktynowe tworzą kurczliwy pierścień w błonie komórkowej, tworząc bruzdę rozszczepiającą, która ostatecznie ściska komórkę na dwie części. W komórkach roślinnych pęcherzyki aparatu Golgiego przenoszące glukozę, enzymy i białka strukturalne łączą się, tworząc nową płytkę komórkową w miejscu poprzedniej płytki metafazowej. Rosnąca płytka komórkowa łączy się z błonami plazmatycznymi po obu stronach, ostatecznie tworząc nową ścianę komórkową, która dzieli komórkę na dwie części.

Mitoza jest teraz zakończona i powstają dwie komórki potomne, identyczne z komórką rodzicielską. W większości komórek ludzkich mitoza stanowi około jednej godziny z około 24-godzinnego cyklu komórkowego.

Mitoza i cytokineza

U eukariontów cykl podziału komórek jest podzielony na odrębne, skoordynowane procesy komórkowe, które obejmują wzrost komórek, replikację DNA / chromosom ...

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cell cycle stages in mitosis

Cell cycle stages in mitosis show how a eukaryotic cell copies its DNA and then divides into two daughter cells. The cycle is controlled by regulatory systems and by outside signals that affect cell growth and division. In typical human cells, the full cycle takes about 24 hours and includes two major phases. The first is DNA replication during the S phase of interphase. The second is the mitotic, or M, phase, which includes mitosis and cytokinesis. G1 and G2 are the gap stages between these phases, and they give the cell time to prepare for replication and division.

Mitosis has five stages: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Cytokinesis may begin during anaphase or telophase, depending on the cell, and it is part of the M phase but not part of mitosis. As mitosis begins in prophase, the replicated chromosomes condense and become visible with the help of condensin proteins. The spindle apparatus starts to form between the duplicated centrosomes, which move to opposite poles. This spindle is made of microtubules, which are built from tubulin proteins, and the nucleolus disappears as the nucleus prepares to break down.

During prometaphase, the chromosomes finish condensing and the nuclear envelope breaks down. This releases the chromosomes into the cell. Some spindle microtubules attach to kinetochores, which are protein structures on the centromere of each pair of sister chromatids. Microtubules from opposite poles capture the sister chromatid pairs. Other microtubules, called polar and astral microtubules, help push the spindle poles apart and anchor them to the cell membrane.

In metaphase, the spindle microtubules line up each pair of fully condensed sister chromatids at the equator of the cell. This position is called the metaphase plate. The cell is then ready to divide. In anaphase, the kinetochore microtubules shorten and pull the sister chromatids apart at the centromere. The cohesion proteins that hold the chromatids together break down. Each chromatid is now a chromosome, and it moves toward an opposite pole.

In telophase, the chromosomes reach the poles and begin to decondense into chromatin. The spindle microtubules also depolymerize into tubulin monomers, which can be used again as cytoskeletal elements in the daughter cells. New nuclear envelopes form around each set of chromosomes. Cytokinesis then divides the cytoplasm. In animal cells, actin filaments form a contractile ring in the plasma membrane and create a cleavage furrow that pinches the cell in two. In plant cells, Golgi vesicles carrying glucose, enzymes, and structural proteins join to form a cell plate at the former metaphase plate. The cell plate fuses with the plasma membranes on both sides and develops into a new cell wall. Mitosis is complete, and the result is two daughter cells identical to the parent cell. In most human cells, mitosis takes about one hour of the 24-hour cell cycle.

Cell Cycle Stages in Mitosis

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mitosis and cytokinesis

Cell cycle stages in mitosis show how a eukaryotic cell copies its DNA and then divides into two daughter cells. The cycle is controlled by regulatory systems and by outside signals that affect cell growth and division. In typical human cells, the full cycle takes about 24 hours and includes two major phases. The first is DNA replication during the S phase of interphase. The second is the mitotic, or M, phase, which includes mitosis and cytokinesis. G1 and G2 are the gap stages between these...

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Cancer develops when mutations affect genes that control cell division. Those changes can remove the normal brakes on growth and lead to uncontrolled cell proliferation. Modern science and medicine have improved how cancer is understood and treated, and some patients can now be cured. There is still no single cure for cancer because cancer is not one disease. It is a large group of many diseases. Even when two people have the same mutation in an oncogene or a tumor suppressor gene, their...

key terms and concepts

Learn how the cell cycle leads to mitosis and cytokinesis, from DNA replication and spindle formation to chromosome separation and cell division.

Cell Cycle Stages in Mitosis | JoVE K12

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Cell Cycle Stages in Mitosis

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