Name: nervous system parts and control
Uploaded: 2019-03-11T09:21:26.000Z
Duration: 1 min 25 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Next Generation Science Standards

High School

Life Science

from-molecules-to-organisms-structures-and-processes

From Molecules to Organisms: Structures and Processes

HS-LS1-2

What is a Nervous System?

Układ nerwowy pozwala człowiekowi wykrywać świat zewnętrzny i odpowiednio na niego reagować. Dodatkowo steruje funkcjami od oddychania po zaawansowane rozumowanie.

System ten jest podzielony na dwie części, ośrodkowy układ nerwowy lub OUN, który zawiera mózg i rdzeń kręgowy, oraz obwodowy układ nerwowy, PNS, który obejmuje nerwy przemieszczające się między OUN a resztą ciała.

Mózg jest podzielony na obszary, które pełnią różne funkcje, takie jak przetwarzanie informacji wizualnych lub koordynowanie ruchów, ale jest również wysoce połączony, co pozwala na integrację informacji.

Podobnie jak reszta układu nerwowego, mózg składa się z neuronów, komórek, które generują i przekazują sygnały nerwowe, oraz komórek glejowych, komórek wspomagających funkcjonowanie neuronów.

Poniżej mózgu znajduje się rdzeń kręgowy, tkanka OUN, która rozciąga się w dół kanału kręgowego. Ułatwia sygnalizację między mózgiem a PNS, a także kontroluje niektóre podstawowe funkcje, takie jak odruchy.

W PNS nerwy, wiązki aksonów neuronalnych, przekazują instrukcje do mięśni szkieletowych w celu kontrolowania ruchu oraz do narządów wewnętrznych w celu regulacji funkcji autonomicznych, takich jak trawienie. Nerwy przenoszą również informacje czuciowe z komórek receptorowych, takich jak te w skórze, które wykrywają dotyk do OUN w celu analizy.

Purves, Dale, George J. Augustine, David Fitzpatrick, Lawrence C. Katz, Anthony-Samuel LaMantia, James O. McNamara i S. Mark Williams. "Układy neuronowe". Neuronauka. Wydanie 2, 2001. [<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11061/" target="__blank">Źródło</a>]

co to jest układ nerwowy?

<h4>Przegląd</h4>

Układ nerwowy to zbiór wyspecjalizowanych komórek odpowiedzialnych za utrzymanie wewnętrznego środowiska organizmu i koordynację interakcji organizmu ze światem zewnętrznym — od kontroli podstawowych funkcji, takich jak tętno i oddychanie, po ruch niezbędny do uciec przed niebezpieczeństwem.

<h4>Części układu nerwowego</h4>

Układ nerwowy kręgowców dzieli się na dwie główne części: centralny układ nerwowy (OUN) i obwodowy układ nerwowy (PNS). OUN obejmuje mózg, rdzeń kręgowy i siatkówkę — tkankę czuciową układu wzrokowego. PNS zawiera komórki receptorów czuciowych wszystkich innych układów zmysłów — takich jak receptory dotyku w skórze — a także nerwy przenoszące informacje między OUN a resztą ciała. Ponadto część OUN i PNS uczestniczy w autonomicznym układzie nerwowym (znanym również jako trzewny układ motoryczny). Autonomiczny układ nerwowy kontroluje mięśnie gładkie, mięśnie sercowe i gruczoły regulujące mimowolne działania, takie jak trawienie.

Mózg kręgowców dzieli się głównie na mózg, móżdżek i pień mózgu. Mózg jest największą, najbardziej wysuniętą do przodu częścią mózgu, która jest podzielona na lewą i prawą półkulę. Każda półkula jest dalej podzielona na cztery płaty: czołowy, ciemieniowy, potyliczny i skroniowy. Najbardziej zewnętrzna warstwa mózgu nazywana jest korą i bierze udział w przetwarzaniu złożonych informacji sensorycznych i większości funkcji poznawczych. Głębiej w mózgu znajdują się inne krytyczne elementy, w tym hipokamp, podwzgórze, wzgórze i zwoje podstawy. Móżdżek (“mały mózg“) znajduje się z tyłu i poniżej mózgu i odpowiada za koordynację ruchu mięśni. Pień mózgu łączy mózg z rdzeniem kręgowym i zawiera ważne ośrodki funkcji życiowych, takich jak oddychanie i połykanie.

Rdzeń kręgowy leży poniżej mózgu i łączy się z pniem mózgu. Zawiera ciała komórek nerwowych i wiązki aksonów, które łączą mózg z różnymi częściami ciała. Oprócz tego, że jest krytycznym kanałem informacji, rdzeń kręgowy może wykonywać pewne funkcje bez udziału mózgu, takie jak poruszanie się i inne odruchy. Nerwy PNS przenoszą polecenia motoryczne z OUN do mięśni, a informacje sensoryczne z komórek receptorowych do OUN w celu interpretacji. Oprócz ruchu mięśni szkieletowych nerwy regulują aktywność narządów wewnętrznych, takich jak płuca i jelita, poprzez współczulne i przywspółczulne części autonomicznego układu nerwowego.

<h4>Komórki układu nerwowego</h4>

Układ nerwowy tworzą dwa główne typy komórek: neurony i komórki glejowe. Neurony pełnią kluczową rolę w ośrodkowym układzie nerwowym— są odpowiedzialne za komunikację między sobą i przenoszenie informacji tam i z powrotem z układu nerwowego do reszty ciała. Szacuje się, że ludzki mózg zawiera około 100 miliardów neuronów i oszałamiającą liczbę 100 bilionów połączeń między nimi. Występują w wielu różnych morfologiach i pełnią szeroki zakres funkcji. Neurony wykorzystują szereg neurochemikaliów i jonów do komunikacji w połączeniach zwanych synapsami.

Inny główny typ komórek układu nerwowego należy do grupy zwanej komórkami glejowymi. Obejmują one zróżnicowaną grupę komórek, które przyczyniają się do funkcjonowania neuronów i są mniej więcej równe liczbie neuronów w mózgu. Główne typy komórek glejowych obejmują astrocyty, mikroglej, oligodendrocyty i komórki wyściółki w OUN; Komórki Schwanna i komórki satelitarne znajdują się w PNS.

<h4>Zdrowie psychiczne jest problemem globalnym</h4>

Układ nerwowy reguluje praktycznie każde nasze doświadczenie, a jego zaburzenia spowodowane traumą, chorobą, uwarunkowaniami genetycznymi lub narażeniem na szkodliwe chemikalia mogą mieć poważny wpływ na zdrowie i jakość życia. Choroby psychiczne wynikające z takich skutków są niezwykle powszechne na całym świecie. Pogłębianie wiedzy na temat zaburzeń neurologicznych i neurorozwojowych w dalszym ciągu zapewnia potencjalne metody leczenia i terapii wielu osobom cierpiącym na schorzenia psychiczne. Między innymi Światowa Organizacja Zdrowia (WHO) i Narodowy Instytut Zdrowia Psychicznego (NIMH) w USA zapewniają cenne zasoby zarówno do badania tych schorzeń, jak i śledzenia ich wpływu na społeczeństwo.

Co to jest układ nerwowy?

Przegląd

Układ nerwowy to zbiór wyspecjalizowanych komórek odpowiedzialnych za utrzymanie środowiska wewnętrznego organizmu i koordynację ...

Education

JoVE Core

Biology

Biologia

Human Biology

Biologia człowieka

Nervous System

Układ nerwowy

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

Kluczowe terminy i pojęcia

nervous system parts and control

The nervous system is a network of specialized cells that keeps the body working and helps it respond to the world around it. It controls essential functions such as heart rate and breathing. It also supports movement that helps an organism escape danger.

In vertebrates, the nervous system has two major parts: the central nervous system, or CNS, and the peripheral nervous system, or PNS. The CNS includes the brain, spinal cord, and retina, which is the sensory tissue of the visual system. The PNS includes sensory receptor cells for the other sensory systems, such as touch receptors in the skin, and the nerves that carry information between the CNS and the rest of the body.

Part of both the CNS and PNS also contributes to the autonomic nervous system, also called the visceral motor system. This system controls smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands. It helps govern involuntary actions such as digestion.

The vertebrate brain is divided into the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem. The cerebrum is the largest and most anterior part of the brain. It has left and right hemispheres, and each hemisphere is divided into the frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes. The outer layer of the cerebrum is the cortex, which processes complex sensory information and many cognitive functions. Deeper brain regions include the hippocampus, hypothalamus, thalamus, and basal ganglia.

The cerebellum, sometimes called the little brain, sits behind and below the cerebrum. It helps coordinate muscle movement. The brainstem connects the brain to the spinal cord and contains important centers for vital functions such as breathing and swallowing. The spinal cord lies below the brain and continues from the brainstem. It contains neuronal cell bodies and axon bundles that connect the brain with the body. It can also carry out some functions without input from the brain, including locomotion and other reflexes.

Nerves in the PNS carry motor commands from the CNS to muscles and sensory information from receptor cells back to the CNS for interpretation. They also help regulate internal organs such as the lungs and intestines through the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system.

Two main cell types make up the nervous system: neurons and glial cells. Neurons carry information between nervous system regions and between the nervous system and the rest of the body. The human brain is estimated to contain about 100 billion neurons and about 100 trillion connections between them. Neurons come in many shapes and use neurochemicals and ions to communicate at synapses, which are junctions between cells.

Glial cells are the other major cell type. They support neuron function and are about as numerous as neurons in the brain. Major glial cells in the CNS include astrocytes, microglia, oligodendrocytes, and ependymal cells. In the PNS, Schwann cells and satellite cells perform related support roles.

Because the nervous system affects nearly every experience, damage from trauma, disease, genetics, or harmful chemicals can strongly affect health and quality of life. Problems in this system are linked to many mental health conditions around the world. Research on neurological and neurodevelopmental disorders continues to guide possible treatments and therapies. Organizations such as the World Health Organization and the National Institute of Mental Health help study these conditions and track their impact on society.

Nervous System Parts and Control

what is a nervous system?

The nervous system is a network of specialized cells that keeps the body working and helps it respond to the world around it. It controls essential functions such as heart rate and breathing. It also supports movement that helps an organism escape danger. In vertebrates, the nervous system has two major parts: the central nervous system, or CNS, and the peripheral nervous system, or PNS. The CNS includes the brain, spinal cord, and retina, which is the sensory tissue of the visual system. The...

the parasympathetic nervous system

Rest and Digest: Parasympathetic Control

The parasympathetic nervous system helps the body stay calm and return to a rested state. It is one of the two major divisions of the autonomic nervous system, which controls many unconscious functions such as heart rate and digestion. Its neurons are found in the brain and the peripheral nervous system, and they send axons to muscles, organs, and glands. This system is often called the “rest and digest” system because it supports body processes that restore homeostasis. It is most active...

the sympathetic nervous system

Sympathetic Stress Response and Body Changes

The sympathetic nervous system helps the body respond to stress and danger. It is one of the two main divisions of the autonomic nervous system. When it turns on, it prepares the body for action and puts lower-priority functions, such as digestion, on hold. This response is often called the fight-or-flight system. A surprise exam can trigger it, and students may notice a tight stomach, a dry mouth, and a fast heartbeat. In a real threat, the system shifts blood away from the digestive system...

the blood-brain barrier

How the Blood-Brain Barrier Works

The blood-brain barrier is a specialized system of blood vessels that helps control what enters the brain. It delivers nutrients from the blood while tightly regulating ions, molecules, pathogens, and other substances. This semipermeable barrier protects the brain and also makes it harder to deliver some therapies. The blood-brain barrier includes several cellular parts, especially endothelial cells and astrocytes. These cells share a common basement membrane and regulate movement between the...

neuron structure

How Neurons Send Signals

Neurons send signals through a clear set of structures that let them receive, process, and pass on information. They are the main cells of the nervous system and use electrochemical signals to communicate. Neurons also talk to other cells through neurotransmitters at junctions called synapses. Most neurons share three main parts: a cell body, also called the soma, dendrites, and an axon. The soma holds the nucleus and other organelles needed for cell function. Dendrites usually receive...

glial cells

Glial Cells and Nervous System Support

Glial cells support the nervous system and work alongside neurons. They are one of the two main cell types in the nervous system. Unlike neurons, glia do not send electrical signals, but they help with nearly every other part of nervous system function. In humans, glial cells are about as numerous as neurons in the brain. In the central nervous system, glia include astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, and ependymal cells. Astrocytes are the most common glial cells. They form organized,...

action potentials

How Nerve Signals Travel in Axons

Neurons send signals through action potentials, the rapid electrical changes that move along the axon. These signals lead to neurotransmitter release at axon terminals, which passes information through the nervous system. An action potential is an all-or-none change in membrane potential, the voltage across a cell membrane. A neuron usually has a resting membrane potential of about -70 millivolts. When it receives signals from neurotransmitters or sensory input, the membrane can become more...

the resting membrane potential

How Neurons Keep a Negative Resting Charge

Neurons keep a negative resting charge across their membrane. This electrical difference, called the membrane potential, comes from how ions move and how the membrane lets them pass. In a resting neuron, the inside is typically around -70 millivolts and is more negative than the outside, so the cell is polarized. Two main factors create this resting state. First, the membrane is selectively permeable, which means most ions and molecules cannot cross the lipid bilayer without help from ion...

long-term potentiation

Synaptic Strengthening in Learning and Memory

Long-term potentiation, or LTP, is a form of synaptic strengthening in the brain. It changes the strength of chemical synapses over time between pre- and postsynaptic neurons. LTP works against long-term depression, or LTD, which weakens synapses. Together, LTP and LTD are major mechanisms behind learning and memory. LTP can happen when a presynaptic neuron fires again and again and keeps stimulating a postsynaptic neuron. This is called Hebbian LTP, based on Donald Hebb’s idea that neurons...

long-term depression

Synaptic Pruning in Long-term Depression

Long-term depression, or LTD, is a form of synaptic plasticity that weakens chemical synapses over time. It acts between presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons. LTD works in opposition to long-term potentiation, or LTP, which strengthens synapses. Together, LTD and LTP are two of the main mechanisms behind learning and memory. LTD helps the brain avoid staying locked in a fully strengthened state. If synapses were always maximally strengthened, the brain would become less efficient and it would...

the synapse

How Neurons Signal at Synapses

Neurons communicate through synapses, the points where two neurons meet to pass on signals. At a synapse, the sending neuron is the presynaptic cell, and the receiving neuron is the postsynaptic cell. Most neurons can serve in both roles because they send and receive information. Electrical synapses move signals directly between cells. The presynaptic and postsynaptic cells are linked by gap junctions, which are proteins that physically connect them. This type of synapse can pass electrical...

key terms and concepts

Explore how the nervous system is organized, how neurons and glial cells work, and how the brain, spinal cord, and nerves control body functions.

Nervous System Parts and Control | JoVE K12

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Nervous System Parts and Control

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