Name: human skeleton: bones, cells, and disease
Uploaded: 2019-03-11T09:21:29.000Z
Duration: 1 min 2 s
Channel: JoVE

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What is the Skeletal System?

Ludzki szkielet składa się z kości, które nie tylko łączą się, tworząc sztywną ramę, nadając kształt ciału, ale także umożliwiają ruch, ponieważ są przymocowane do mięśni za pomocą ścięgien.

Jeden z głównych podziałów, szkielet osiowy, jest ułożony wokół centralnej osi ciała. Chociaż w tej części górnej części ciała znajduje się wiele kości, w tym kosteczki słuchowe ucha środkowego, większość z nich chroni ważne narządy przed uszkodzeniem.

Na przykład czaszka otacza mózg, a kręgosłup wygina się w łuk wokół rdzenia kręgowego, osłaniając ośrodkowy układ nerwowy. Inne narządy, takie jak serce i płuca, są chronione przez mostek i klatkę piersiową.

Drugi podział, szkielet wyrostka robaczkowego, składa się z kości, które podtrzymują i poruszają przydatkami, rękami i ramionami, a także stopami i nogami oraz obręczą piersiową i miedniczną.

Kling, Juliana M., Bart L. Clarke i Nicole P. Sandhu. "Zapobieganie, badania przesiewowe i leczenie osteoporozy: przegląd". Journal of Women's Health 23, nr 7 (1 lipca 2014): 563–72. [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2013.4611" target="__blank">Źródło</a>]

Akkawi, Ibrahim i Hassan Zmerly. "Osteoporoza: aktualne koncepcje". Joints 6, nr 2 (14 czerwca 2018): 122–27. [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0038-1660790" target="__blank">Źródło</a>]

co to jest układ kostny?

<h4>Przegląd</h4>

Szkielet dorosłego człowieka składa się z 206 kości połączonych chrząstkami, ścięgnami i więzadłami. Szkielet stanowi sztywną ramę dla organizmu człowieka, chroni narządy wewnętrzne oraz umożliwia ruch i lokomocję. Układ kostny człowieka składa się ze szkieletu osiowego i kończynowego. Tkanka kostna jest stale odbudowana i przeżuwana przez wyspecjalizowane komórki kostne, które są niezbędne dla ogólnego stanu zdrowia. Rozregulowane komórki kostne i nieprawidłowy poziom związków chemicznych we krwi prowadzą do chorób kości.

<h4>Szkielet osiowy</h4>

Szkielet osiowy składa się z 80 kości i jest podzielony na trzy obszary: czaszkę, kręgosłup i klatkę piersiową. Górna część czaszki — czaszka — składa się z ośmiu kości otaczających mózg, podczas gdy dolna część składa się z 14 kości. Kręgosłup składa się z 33 kręgów: siedmiu szyjnych, 12 piersiowych, pięciu lędźwiowych, pięciu zrośniętych kręgów krzyżowych i czterech zrośniętych kręgów guzicznych.

Klatka żebrowa zapewnia stabilność kręgosłupa, a także chroni płuca i serce. Składa się z 12 par żeber, które łączą się z kręgiem piersiowym poprzez staw żebrowo-kręgowy. Przednia część klatki piersiowej łączy się z mostkiem — płaską kością znajdującą się pośrodku przedniej części klatki piersiowej — poprzez chrząstki żebrowe. Pierwsze siedem żeber po każdej stronie nazywa się żebrami prawdziwymi, ponieważ ich chrząstki łączą się bezpośrednio z mostkiem. Żebra od ósmego do dwunastego nazywane są żebrami rzekomymi, ponieważ nie łączą się bezpośrednio z mostkiem. Jednakże żebra od ósmego do dziesiątego łączą się z mostkiem poprzez chrząstki żebrowe powyższych żeber. Z drugiej strony żebra 11 i 12 nazywane są żebrami pływającymi, ponieważ są przymocowane do kręgosłupa tylko z tyłu, ale nie mają żadnego połączenia z mostkiem.

<h4>Szkielet kończynowy</h4>

Układ szkieletowy wyrostków składa się ze 126 kości kończyn i pasów przyczepionych do szkieletu osiowego. Układ kostny wyrostka robaczkowego składa się z kilku różnych typów kości.

<h4>Tkanka i komórki kostne</h4>

Kość nazywana jest tkanką kostną. Komórki tkanki kostnej są rozproszone w matrixie — substancji zapewniającej kościom wytrzymałość i twardość. Matryca składa się ze składników organicznych — głównie kolagenu — oraz składników nieorganicznych składających się z krystalizowanych soli mineralnych, takich jak fosforan wapnia, wodorotlenek wapnia i fluorek magnezu.

Istnieją trzy główne typy komórek kostnych — osteoblasty, osteoklasty i osteocyty. Osteoblasty i osteoklasty pełnią przeciwne funkcje. Osteoblasty budują macierz kostną, podczas gdy osteoklasty ją przeżuwają. Obie funkcje trwają przez całe życie i obie są niezbędne dla dobrego zdrowia. Budowanie kości jest ważne dla utrzymania mocnych kości; przeżuwanie kości pozwala na utrzymanie poziomu wapnia we krwi (co jest niezbędne dla zdrowia innych narządów, takich jak serce).

Osteocyty to komórki, które wyrosły z osteoblastów i są obecnie otoczone macierzą. Osteocyty komunikują się z krwią poprzez mikroskopijne kanały w kości, wykrywając poziom wapnia i innych minerałów we krwi. Następnie kontrolują funkcje osteoblastów i osteoklastów, wydzielając substancje wpływające na aktywność tych komórek.

<h4>Choroby kości</h4>

Wiele chorób układu kostnego ma wspólną cechę: słabe kości spowodowane słabą zawartością minerałów. Na przykład osteoporoza charakteryzuje się zmniejszoną gęstością mineralną kości. Występuje najczęściej u kobiet po menopauzie, ale może wystąpić również u mężczyzn i kobiet przed menopauzą. W tej chorobie aktywność osteoklastów jest większa niż osteoblastów. U pacjentów z osteoporozą ryzyko złamań jest znacznie zwiększone, szczególnie kręgosłupa, biodra i nadgarstka.

Inną szeroko rozpowszechnioną chorobą kości jest osteodystrofia nerkowa. Choroba ta stanowi część szerszego schorzenia zwanego zaburzeniami mineralnymi i kostnymi w przewlekłej chorobie nerek. Nerki pełnią wiele funkcji, w tym regulują gospodarkę wapniową, fosforową i witaminą D, które mają kluczowe znaczenie dla zdrowia kości. Kiedy nerki nie funkcjonują prawidłowo, jak na przykład w przypadku cukrzycowej choroby nerek, kości mogą stać się osłabione i bolesne, podobnie jak stawy.

Co to jest układ kostny?

Przegląd

Szkielet dorosłego człowieka składa się z 206 kości, które są połączone chrząstkami, ścięgnami i więzadłami. Szkielet zapewnia sztywną ...

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KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

Kluczowe terminy i pojęcia

human skeleton: bones, cells, and disease

The human skeleton is a living framework made of 206 bones in adults. Bones connect with cartilage, tendons, and ligaments. This system gives the body support, protects organs, and helps with movement and locomotion.

The skeleton has two main parts: the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton has 80 bones and includes the skull, the vertebral column, and the rib cage. The cranium, or upper skull, has eight bones that enclose the brain, while the lower part of the skull has 14 bones. The vertebral column has 33 vertebrae. These include seven cervical, 12 thoracic, five lumbar, five fused sacral, and four fused coccygeal vertebrae.

The rib cage adds stability to the vertebral column and protects the lungs and heart. It has 12 pairs of ribs that attach to the thoracic vertebrae at the costovertebral joint. The front of the rib cage connects to the sternum, the flat bone in the center of the chest, through costal cartilages. The first seven ribs are true ribs because their cartilages attach directly to the sternum. Ribs eight through 12 are false ribs. Ribs eight through 10 connect to the sternum through the cartilages of the ribs above them, while ribs 11 and 12 are floating ribs because they do not connect to the sternum at all.

The appendicular skeleton has 126 bones. It includes the bones of the limbs and the girdles that attach them to the axial skeleton. Bone tissue is also called osseous tissue. Its cells sit in a matrix, which is the material that gives bone strength and hardness. The matrix contains organic material, mainly collagen, and inorganic mineral salts such as calcium phosphate, calcium hydroxide, and magnesium fluoride.

Bone cells have different jobs. Osteoblasts build bone matrix, while osteoclasts break it down. Both actions continue throughout life and are important for health. Building bone helps keep bones strong. Breaking down bone helps maintain calcium levels in the bloodstream, which is important for organs such as the heart. Osteocytes are mature bone cells that come from osteoblasts. They sit inside the matrix and communicate with the blood through tiny channels in bone. They sense calcium and other mineral levels and help control osteoblast and osteoclast activity by releasing substances that affect these cells.

Problems in bone cell balance or mineral levels can lead to bone disease. Osteoporosis is a common example. It is marked by low bone mineral density and more osteoclast activity than osteoblast activity. It occurs most often in postmenopausal women, but it can also occur in men and premenopausal women. People with osteoporosis have a much higher risk of fractures, especially in the spine, hip, and wrist.

Renal osteodystrophy is another widespread bone disease. It is part of mineral and bone disorder in chronic kidney disease. The kidneys help regulate calcium, phosphorus, and vitamin D, and these are all needed for bone health. When the kidneys do not work properly, such as in diabetic kidney disease, bones may become weak and painful, and the joints may hurt as well.

Human Skeleton: Bones, Cells, and Disease

what is the skeletal system?

The human skeleton is a living framework made of 206 bones in adults. Bones connect with cartilage, tendons, and ligaments. This system gives the body support, protects organs, and helps with movement and locomotion. The skeleton has two main parts: the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton has 80 bones and includes the skull, the vertebral column, and the rib cage. The cranium, or upper skull, has eight bones that enclose the brain, while the lower part of the skull...

bone structure

Inside a Long Bone

Inside a long bone, osseous tissue is organized into two main types: cortical bone and cancellous bone. A femur is a clear example of this structure. The bone also includes outer coverings and inner spaces that support growth, repair, and blood cell production. Cortical bone, also called compact bone, forms the dense outer layer along the diaphysis, or shaft. It is covered by the periosteum, a membrane with connective tissue, capillaries, and nerves. Beneath the cortical layer is the medullary...

joints

Types of Joints in the Human Body

Joints are the places where adjacent bones connect. They are also called articulations or articular surfaces. Joints help the body move and stay stable. Joints can be classified by structure or by function. Structural classification depends on the material that forms the joint and whether there is a space between the bones. By structure, joints are fibrous, cartilaginous, or synovial. Fibrous joints are connected by fibrous tissue and have no cavity between the bones. Because of this, they do...

bone remodeling

How Hormones Control Bone Turnover

Bone turnover is a continuous process in which old bone is broken down and new bone is built. Osteoclasts carry out bone resorption, and osteoblasts carry out bone formation. In adults, this balanced cycle helps maintain bone mass and calcium homeostasis. Mechanical stress can also stimulate turnover as part of normal maintenance and repair. Parathyroid hormone, or PTH, helps control blood calcium levels by increasing bone resorption when calcium is low. It is released from the parathyroid...

skeletal muscle anatomy

Muscle Fibers, Tendons, and Contraction

Skeletal muscle moves the body by pulling on bones through tendons. Tendons are the connective tissue that attaches skeletal muscle to bones. When skeletal muscles contract, they create voluntary movement. Skeletal muscle is wrapped in layers of connective tissue. The outer layer is the epimysium, which helps protect the muscle. Beneath it, the perimysium surrounds and groups fasciculi, which are bundles of skeletal muscle cells called myocytes. These cells are also called skeletal muscle...

classification of skeletal muscle fibers

Skeletal Muscle Fiber Speed and Energy

Skeletal muscle fibers can be grouped by how fast they contract and how they make ATP, the energy cells use for movement. These differences also shape their physical features. Most human muscles contain all three fiber types, but in different amounts. Slow oxidative fibers, also called slow-twitch fibers, appear red because they have many capillaries and high levels of myoglobin, an oxygen-storing protein. They also contain more mitochondria, which make ATP through oxidative phosphorylation,...

muscle contraction

Nerve Signals That Trigger Muscle Contraction

Nerve signals trigger muscle contraction in both skeletal and smooth muscle, but the two muscle types use different control systems. In skeletal muscle, the signal begins at the motor end plate, which is the synapse between a motor neuron and a muscle fiber. In smooth muscle, contraction is controlled by the autonomic nervous system and happens without conscious control. In skeletal muscle, motor nerve terminals release acetylcholine. This neurotransmitter binds to receptors on the sarcolemma,...

cross-bridge cycle

Calcium Control in Muscle Contraction

Calcium control in muscle contraction depends on ATP, motor neurons, and the sliding action of actin and myosin. As a muscle contracts, the thin and thick filaments overlap more, and the sarcomere, which is the contractile unit of the muscle, becomes shorter. This process uses energy from ATP and happens in a repeating cycle at the molecular level. Myosin drives the movement of actin through a cross-bridge cycle. When ATP attached to the myosin head is hydrolyzed to ADP, myosin shifts into a...

motor units

How Motor Units Control Muscle Movement

Motor units control skeletal muscle movement. A motor unit includes one efferent motor neuron, which carries signals away from the central nervous system, and all of the muscle fibers it innervates. A single motor neuron can connect with multiple muscle fibers, but each muscle fiber is innervated by only one motor neuron. Lower motor neurons are the efferent neurons that control skeletal muscle, the most abundant type of muscle in the body. Their cell bodies are found in the spinal cord or...

the spinal cord

Spinal Cord Structure and Dermatomes

The spinal cord is the main nerve pathway of the central nervous system. It carries sensory signals from the body to the brain and motor signals from the brain to the body. It begins at the foramen magnum, the opening at the base of the skull, and extends to the level of the first or second lumbar vertebra. In cross-section, the spinal cord is cylindrical and contains both gray matter and white matter. The central canal lies in the middle and is a remnant of the lumen of the primitive neural...

nociception

Pain Signaling and Inflammation

Pain signaling begins when the body detects a harmful stimulus. Sharp objects, open flames, and corrosive chemicals can trigger this response. Sensory receptors called nociceptors, which sit on nerve endings, detect these noxious stimuli and use ion channels to turn them into electrical signals. Those electrical signals travel through sensory neurons to the brain, where they are experienced as pain. This warning system helps an organism avoid damage and stay safe. Pain is therefore an...

key terms and concepts

Explore the human skeleton, including axial and appendicular bones, bone cells, and common bone diseases like osteoporosis and renal osteodystrophy.

Human Skeleton: Bones, Cells, and Disease | JoVE K12

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Human Skeleton: Bones, Cells, and Disease

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