Name: how acids and bases form ions
Uploaded: 2020-09-03T13:38:26.000Z
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K12 Standards

north-carolina-k-12-science-standard-course-of-study

North Carolina K-12 Science Standard Course of Study

9-12

Physical Science

Matter and its Interactions

PS.PSc.2.4

Acids, Bases and Neutralization Reactions

Ludzki żołądek to narząd mięśniowy zawierający soki żołądkowe, w tym kwas solny, które pomagają trawić pokarm. Niektóre rodzaje pokarmów podnoszą poziom kwasowości naszego żołądka, powodując refluks żołądkowy. 

Spożywanie pokarmów alkalicznych lub zasady, takiej jak środek zobojętniający kwas żołądkowy, neutralizuje nadmiar kwasu, łagodząc uczucie pieczenia. Jest to przykład reakcji kwasowo-zasadowej.

Najprostsze kwasy to substancje, które zawierają dysocjowalne atomy wodoru. W roztworach wodnych uwalniają dodatnio naładowane jony wodorowe lub protony wraz z odpowiadającymi im anionami. Protony reagują z cząsteczkami wody, tworząc jony hydroniowe. 

Na przykład wodny roztwór kwasu azotowego zawiera jony hydroniowe i jony azotanowe. Inne powszechnie znane kwasy to kwas solny, kwas siarkowy i kwas fosforowy.  

Kwasy są monoprototyczne lub poliprototyczne w zależności od liczby dysocjowalnych atomów wodoru w cząsteczce. 

Kwas solny i kwas azotowy, z których każdy zawiera jeden dysocjowalny wodór, są przykładami kwasów monoprotonowych, podczas gdy kwas siarkowy i kwas fosforowy są poliprotyczne. Kwas siarkowy jest diprotyczny i uwalnia kolejno swoje dwa protony, podczas gdy kwas fosforowy jest triprotonowy i dysocjuje sekwencyjnie w trzech etapach.

Najprostszymi zasadami są związki, które dają ujemnie naładowane jony wodorotlenkowe w roztworach wodnych. Łatwe do zidentyfikowania zasady zawierają grupy hydroksylowe; Na przykład wodorotlenek sodu, wodorotlenek potasu i wodorotlenek wapnia. 

Takie zasady, po dodaniu do wody, dysocjują na jony wodorotlenkowe i odpowiadające im kationy metali.

Zasady bezwodorotlenkowe, takie jak amoniak, reagują z wodą, przyjmując protony z cząsteczek wody w celu wytworzenia jonów amonowych i jonów wodorotlenkowych. 

Ogólnie rzecz biorąc, kwas i zasada reagują, tworząc wodę i sól. Reakcje kwasowo-zasadowe nazywane są również reakcjami neutralizacji, gdy mole protonów dostarczanych przez kwas i mole jonów wodorotlenkowych dostarczanych przez zasadę są równe.

Na przykład, gdy miesza się równe ilości wodnego kwasu azotowego i wodnego wodorotlenku potasu, ilości jonów hydroniowych i wodorotlenkowych dostarczanych do roztworu są również równe.

W związku z tym jony hydroniowe i wodorotlenkowe całkowicie neutralizują się nawzajem, łącząc się w wodę, nie pozostawiając żadnych jonów hydroniowych ani wodorotlenkowych. Dodatkowo aniony azotanowe i kationy potasu łączą się, tworząc sól — azotan potasu.  

Niektóre reakcje neutralizacji są reakcjami wydzielania gazów. Na przykład kwas solny i siarczyn potasu reagują, tworząc chlorek potasu, wodę i gazowy dwutlenek siarki w układzie równowagi siarczynowo-wodorosiarczynowej.

kwasy, zasady i reakcje zobojętniania

Reakcja kwasowo-zasadowa to taka, w której jon wodorowy H+, jest przenoszony z jednego związku chemicznego na inny. Reakcje takie mają kluczowe znaczenie dla wielu procesów naturalnych i technologicznych, począwszy od przemian chemicznych w komórkach, jeziorach i oceanach, po produkcję na skalę przemysłową nawozów, farmaceutyków i innych substancji niezbędnych dla społeczeństwa.

Istnieje kilka sposobów definiowania kwasu. W kontekście roztworów wodnych kwas jest substancją, która rozpuszcza się, tworząc jony wodorowe.

<img alt="Eq1" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1029/1029_Equations-01.png" style="height: 40px;">

To jest definicja kwasu Arrheniusa, nazwana na cześć szwedzkiego chemika Svante Arrheniusa (1859–1927). Jon wodoru, oznaczony symbolem H+, nazywany jest protonem. W roztworze protony łączą się chemicznie z cząsteczkami wody poprzez niezależne pary na tlenie, tworząc jony hydroniowe, H3O+.

<img alt="Eq2" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1029/1029_Equations-02.png" style="height: 40px;">

Równanie chemiczne jonizacji kwasu zapisuje się jako

<img alt="Eq3" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1029/1029_Equations-03.png" style="height: 40px;">

Kwasy, które w ten sposób całkowicie reagują z wodą, nazywane są mocnymi kwasami. Ich przykładami mogą być HCl, HNO3 i HBr.

Większość kwasów spotykanych na co dzień to słabe kwasy. Kwas cytrynowy w owocach, kwas octowy w occie i kwas mlekowy w mleku to tylko kilka przykładów. Znanym przykładem słabego kwasu jest kwas octowy, główny składnik octu spożywczego. Po rozpuszczeniu w wodzie w typowych warunkach tylko około 1% cząsteczek kwasu octowego występuje w postaci zjonizowanej, CH3CO2-.

<img alt="Eq4" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1029/1029_Equations-04.png" style="height: 40px;">

Użycie obustronnej strzałki w powyższym równaniu oznacza częściowy aspekt reakcji tego procesu.

Zasada to substancja, która rozpuszcza się w wodzie, tworząc jony wodorotlenkowe, OH−. Najpopularniejszymi zasadami są związki jonowe składające się z kationów metali alkalicznych lub metali ziem alkalicznych (grupy 1 i 2) połączonych z jonem wodorotlenkowym – na przykład NaOH i Ca(OH)2. W przeciwieństwie do omówionych wcześniej związków kwasowych, związki te nie reagują chemicznie z wodą; zamiast tego rozpuszczają się i dysocjują, uwalniając jony wodorotlenkowe bezpośrednio do roztworu. Na przykład KOH i Ba(OH)2 rozpuszczają się w wodzie i całkowicie dysocjują, tworząc kationy (odpowiednio K+ i Ba2+) oraz jony wodorotlenkowe, OH−. Zasady te, wraz z innymi wodorotlenkami, które całkowicie dysocjują w wodzie, są uważane za mocne zasady.

Rozważmy na przykład rozpuszczanie wodorotlenku sodu w wodzie:

<img alt="Eq5" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1029/1029_Equations-05.png" style="height: 40px;">

To równanie potwierdza, że wodorotlenek sodu jest zasadą. Po rozpuszczeniu w wodzie NaOH dysocjuje, tworząc jony Na+ i OH−. Dotyczy to również każdego innego związku jonowego zawierającego jony wodorotlenkowe. Ponieważ proces dysocjacji jest zasadniczo zakończony, gdy związki jonowe rozpuszczają się w wodzie w typowych warunkach, NaOH i inne wodorotlenki jonowe klasyfikuje się jako mocne zasady.

W przeciwieństwie do wodorotlenków jonowych, niektóre związki wytwarzają jony wodorotlenkowe po rozpuszczeniu w wyniku reakcji chemicznej z cząsteczkami wody. We wszystkich przypadkach związki te reagują tylko częściowo i dlatego są klasyfikowane jako słabe zasady. Związki tego typu występują również powszechnie w przyrodzie i stanowią ważny surowiec w różnych technologiach. Na przykład globalna produkcja słabo zasadowego amoniaku wynosi zazwyczaj znacznie ponad 100 ton rocznie, ponieważ jest on powszechnie stosowany jako nawóz rolniczy, surowiec do syntezy chemicznej innych związków i aktywny składnik domowych środków czyszczących. Po rozpuszczeniu w wodzie amoniak częściowo reaguje, tworząc jony wodorotlenkowe, jak pokazano poniżej:

<img alt="Eq6" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1029/1029_Equations-06.png" style="height: 40px;">

Z definicji jest to reakcja kwasowo-zasadowa polegająca na przeniesieniu jonów H+ z cząsteczek wody do cząsteczek amoniaku. W typowych warunkach tylko około 1% rozpuszczonego amoniaku występuje w postaci jonów NH4+.

Reakcja zobojętniania to specyficzny rodzaj reakcji kwasowo-zasadowej, w której reagentami są kwas i zasada (ale nie woda), a produktami są często sól i woda:

<img alt="Eq7" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1029/1029_Equations-07.png" style="height: 40px;">

Aby zilustrować reakcję neutralizacji, rozważmy, co się stanie, gdy przyjmiemy powszechny środek zobojętniający kwas, taki jak mleko magnezjowe (wodna zawiesina stałego Mg(OH)2), aby złagodzić objawy związane z nadmiarem kwasu żołądkowego (HCl):

<img alt="Eq8" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1029/1029_Equations-08.png" style="height: 40px;">

Należy pamiętać, że oprócz wody w wyniku tej reakcji powstaje sól i chlorek magnezu. H+ (aq) z kwasu (mocnego lub słabego) łączy się z OH− (aq) z zasady (lub wytwarzany w reakcji słabej zasady z wodą), tworząc H2O (l). Na przykład reakcję pomiędzy wodnymi roztworami HCl (mocny kwas) i NaOH (mocna zasada) można zapisać w następujący sposób:

<img alt="Eq9" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1029/1029_Equations-09.png" style="height: 40px;">

Zarówno HCl, jak i NaOH ulegają 100% jonizacji. Pełne równanie jonowe można zatem zapisać jako:

<img alt="Eq10" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1029/1029_Equations-10.png" style="height: 40px;">

Cl- i Na+ nazywane są jonami obserwacyjnymi, które wykreślają się, dając równanie jonowe netto jako:

<img alt="Eq11" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1029/1029_Equations-11.png" style="height: 40px;">

Kwasy, zasady i reakcje zobojętniania

Reakcja kwasowo-zasadowa to taka, w której jon wodorowy, H+, jest przenoszony z jednego rodzaju chemicznego na drugi. Takie reakcje mają kluczowe znaczenie dla ...

Education

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Chemistry

Chemia

Chemical Quantities and Aqueous Reactions

Ilości substancji chemicznych i reakcje w roztworach wodnych

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how acids and bases form ions

Acids and bases form ions in water through acid-base reactions. These reactions move a hydrogen ion, H+, from one chemical species to another. They matter in many natural and technological processes, from chemistry inside cells and in lakes and oceans to the large-scale production of fertilizers, pharmaceuticals, and other useful substances.

In water, an acid is a substance that produces hydrogen ions. This is the Arrhenius definition of an acid. The H+ ion is also called a proton. In solution, these protons combine with water molecules to form hydronium ions, H3O+.

Acids that react completely with water are called strong acids. Common examples include HCl, HNO3, and HBr. Most acids people encounter in daily life are weak acids. Citric acid in fruits, acetic acid in vinegar, and lactic acid in milk are examples. Acetic acid is a familiar weak acid, and under typical conditions only about 1% of its molecules are in the ionized form, CH3CO2−. A double arrow shows that this reaction is only partial.

A base is a substance that dissolves in water to yield hydroxide ions, OH−. The most common bases are ionic compounds made of alkali or alkaline earth metal cations from groups 1 and 2 with hydroxide ions, such as NaOH and Ca(OH)2. These compounds do not react chemically with water. Instead, they dissolve and dissociate, releasing hydroxide ions directly into solution.

KOH and Ba(OH)2 are examples of strong bases because they dissociate completely in water. The same is true for sodium hydroxide. When NaOH dissolves, it gives Na+ and OH− ions. Any ionic compound that contains hydroxide ions behaves this way under typical conditions, so these hydroxides are classified as strong bases.

Some compounds make hydroxide ions by reacting with water molecules instead of simply dissociating. These compounds react only partially, so they are weak bases. Ammonia is a common example. It is produced on a very large scale because it is used as an agricultural fertilizer, a starting material for chemical synthesis, and an ingredient in household cleaners. When ammonia dissolves in water, it reacts partially to form OH− and NH4+ ions. This is an acid-base reaction because H+ ions move from water molecules to ammonia molecules. Under typical conditions, only about 1% of dissolved ammonia is present as NH4+.

A neutralization reaction is a special acid-base reaction in which an acid and a base react, but water is not a reactant. The products are often a salt and water. Milk of magnesia is a common antacid made of solid Mg(OH)2 in water. It helps relieve excess stomach acid, HCl, by neutralizing it. This reaction forms water and the salt magnesium chloride.

In neutralization, H+(aq) from the acid combines with OH−(aq) from the base to make H2O(l). For example, HCl and NaOH are both completely ionized in water. Their complete ionic equation includes Na+ and Cl− ions, but these are spectator ions because they cancel out. The net ionic equation shows the essential change: H+(aq) + OH−(aq) → H2O(l).

How Acids and Bases Form Ions

precipitation reactions

Predicting Precipitation in Aqueous Reactions

Precipitation reactions happen when two aqueous solutions of soluble salts are mixed and an insoluble ionic compound forms. That solid is called a precipitate. The ions in solution exchange partners, so these reactions are also called double displacement, double replacement, exchange, or metathesis reactions. These reactions are useful in chemistry for identifying metal ions in a compound. They also support gravimetric methods, which measure composition by the mass of a substance. Whether a...

reaction stoichiometry

Using Balanced Equations to Predict Amounts

Balanced chemical equations show how much of each substance reacts and forms in a chemical change. The formulas identify the reactants and products, which helps classify the reaction. The coefficients show the relative numbers of each substance, which lets chemists measure the relationships between amounts consumed and produced. These quantitative relationships are called stoichiometry. The word comes from the Greek words stoicheion, meaning element, and metron, meaning measure. Stoichiometry...

acids, bases and neutralization reactions

Acids and bases form ions in water through acid-base reactions. These reactions move a hydrogen ion, H+, from one chemical species to another. They matter in many natural and technological processes, from chemistry inside cells and in lakes and oceans to the large-scale production of fertilizers, pharmaceuticals, and other useful substances. In water, an acid is a substance that produces hydrogen ions. This is the Arrhenius definition of an acid. The H+ ion is also called a proton. In...

limiting reactant

Limiting Reactant in Water Formation

Limiting reactants control how much product forms in a chemical reaction. In a balanced equation, the listed amounts of reactants and products are called stoichiometric amounts. In real reactions, the reactants are not always present in those exact proportions. The limiting reactant is the reactant that gets used up first. Once it is gone, the reaction stops making more product. The other reactant is called the excess reactant. Chemists often use extra amounts of one reactant to make sure the...

reaction yield

Calculating Percent Yield in Reactions

Percent yield shows how much product a chemical reaction actually makes compared with how much it should make. The expected amount is called the theoretical yield. It comes from the balanced chemical equation and the stoichiometry, or mole ratios, in that equation. The theoretical yield assumes that the limiting reactant is completely converted into the desired product. The product collected after a reaction is the actual yield. In many cases, the actual yield is lower than the theoretical...

general properties of solutions

Solvents, Solutes, and Solution Types

Solutions are common mixtures found in everyday life. Ocean water, air, and gasoline are all examples of solutions. These mixtures contain two or more types of atoms or molecules in varying amounts. A solution is a homogeneous mixture, which means its composition is uniform throughout. This is different from a heterogeneous mixture, which has a non-uniform composition. In a homogeneous mixture, the components are evenly spread out and thoroughly mixed. Every solution has a solvent and a...

solution concentration and dilution

Molarity and Dilution in Solutions

Molarity and dilution are key ideas for describing solution concentration. Concentration means the relative amount of one component in a solution. In many solutions, one component is present in much larger amount. That component is the solvent, which acts as the medium that holds the other parts dissolved or dispersed. Water is a very common solvent, so aqueous solutions are common on Earth. A solute is the component present at a much lower concentration than the solvent. Chemists often...

electrolyte and nonelectrolyte solutions

Conductivity in Electrolyte Solutions

Electrolyte solutions conduct electricity because they contain mobile ions. The amount of current depends on how many ions are present in the aqueous solution. A solution with more dissolved ions conducts better, while a solution with few or no ions conducts poorly. Strong electrolytes dissociate completely in water. This complete dissociation is shown with a single forward arrow. Water-soluble ionic compounds such as sodium chloride split into sodium cations and chloride anions in solution.

solubility of ionic compounds

Solubility Rules for Ionic Salts

Solubility rules help predict whether ionic salts will dissolve in water. Solubility is the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve in a given amount of solvent at a set temperature and pressure. It is often measured in molarity, or moles per liter (mol/L). A compound is soluble if it dissolves in water. When a soluble salt dissolves, its ions separate and spread evenly through the solution. This physical change is called dissociation. Potassium chloride, KCl, is a simple example. Water...

chemical reactions in aqueous solutions

Aqueous Reactions and Ionic Equations

Aqueous reactions are chemical reactions that take place in water. Water is a good solvent, so it can dissolve many substances. Because of that, many chemical reactions happen in aqueous solution. In high school chemistry, these reactions are often grouped into three common patterns: precipitation, acid-base, and oxidation-reduction. A precipitation reaction happens when ions in two aqueous ionic compounds exchange partners and form an insoluble salt, called a precipitate. In an acid-base...

oxidation–reduction reactions

Redox Reactions and Oxidation Numbers

Redox reactions are chemical changes in which electrons move between reactants, and oxidation numbers help track that change. The term oxidation once referred only to reactions with molecular oxygen, but it now covers a wider reaction class called oxidation-reduction, or redox, reactions. Some redox reactions form ionic products. A simple example is the reaction between sodium and chlorine that produces sodium chloride. To follow what happens to each reactant, chemists often write...

oxidation numbers

Assigning Oxidation States in Redox Reactions

Oxidation states help track electron transfer in redox reactions. An oxidation number, also called an oxidation state, is a hypothetical number that shows the effective charge of an atom or element. Chemists assign it by using a set of rules. In an ionic compound, oxidation numbers are based on how many electrons move between reacting species. For example, when calcium chloride forms, calcium loses two valence electrons and the two chlorine atoms each gain one electron. In CaCl2, calcium has...

acids, bases, and neutralization reactions

synthesis and decomposition reactions

Building and Breaking in Chemical Reactions

Synthesis and decomposition are two redox reactions that show how substances can be built up or broken down. Synthesis means to make something, while decomposition means to break something apart. These reactions also involve chemical changes and energy changes. Synthesis reactions are also called combination reactions. In a synthesis reaction, two or more substances join to form one more complex substance. They are often written as A + B → AB or A + B → C. One example is the formation of...

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key relationships & equations

Kluczowe zależności i równania

chapter exercises

Ćwiczenia do rozdziału

appendices

Dodatki

chemical quantities and aqueous reactions

Learn how acids and bases form ions in water, including strong and weak acids, strong and weak bases, ammonia, and neutralization reactions.

How Acids and Bases Form Ions | JoVE K12

chemistry

PS.PSc.2.6

Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills

High School

Chemistry and Physics

IPC.8

IPC.8.A

Pennsylvania State Academic Standards

Chemical Reactions

3.2.9-12.C

3.2.9-12.G

Louisiana Student Standards for Science

Matter And Its Interactions

HS-PS1-2

HS-PS1-7

ohios-learning-standards-and-model-curriculum

Ohio’s Learning Standards and Model Curriculum

Interactions Of Matter

Chemical reactions

Tennessee Academic Standards

Matter and Its Interactions

CHEM1.PS1.4

Arizona Science Standards

HS+C.P1

HS+C.P1U1.5

CHEM.9

CHEM.9.B

Alabama Course of Study Science

9-12.PS.3.5.d

9-12.PS.3.6.d

Florida Department of Education

SC.912.P.8

SC.912.P.8.8

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New York State Science Learning Standards

HS. Chemical Reactions

HS-PS1-4.

HS-PS1-12.

Georgia Standards of Excellence

SC6.

Neutralization Reactions

Classifying Matter by State

Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes it undergoes. Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Matter is all around us; the air, ...

Classifying Matter by Composition

Matter: Pure Substances and Mixtures
According to its composition, the matter can be classified into two broad categories &mdash; pure substances and ...

Elements: Chemical Symbols and Isotopes

A chemical symbol is an abbreviation used to indicate an element or an atom of an element. For example, the symbol for mercury is Hg. The same symbol is ...

Molecules and Compounds

Atoms and Molecules

Everything in the universe is made up of matter, and matter is composed of a combination of elements. An atom is the smallest unit of ...

Solution Formation

There is no one solvent that can dissolve every type of solute. Some substances that readily dissolve in a certain solvent might be insoluble in a ...

Colloids

Children at play often make suspensions such as mixtures of mud and water, flour and water, or a suspension of solid pigments in water known as tempera ...

Construct an explanation to classify matter as a pure substance or mixture; homogeneous or heterogeneous; element or compound; solution, colloid or suspension.

PS.PSc.1.1

Phase Transitions

Whether solid, liquid, or gas, a substance&#39;s state depends on the order and arrangement of its particles (atoms, molecules, or ions). Particles in the ...

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Phase Transitions: Vaporization and Condensation

The physical form of a substance changes on changing its temperature. For example, raising the temperature of a liquid causes the liquid to vaporize ...

Vapor Pressure

When a liquid vaporizes in a closed container, gas molecules cannot escape. As these gas phase molecules move randomly about, they will occasionally ...

Clausius-Clapeyron Equation

The equilibrium between a liquid and its vapor depends on the temperature of the system; a rise in temperature causes a corresponding rise in the vapor ...

Phase Transitions: Melting and Freezing

Heating a crystalline solid increases the average energy of its atoms, molecules, or ions, and the solid gets hotter. At some point, the added energy ...

phase-transitions-sublimation-and-deposition

Phase Transitions: Sublimation and Deposition

Some solids can transition directly into the gaseous state, bypassing the liquid state, via a process known as sublimation. At room temperature and ...

Heating and Cooling Curves

When a substance&#8212;isolated from its environment&#8212;is subjected to heat changes, corresponding changes in temperature and phase of the substance ...

Phase Diagrams

A phase diagram combines plots of pressure versus temperature for the liquid-gas, solid-liquid, and solid-gas phase-transition equilibria of a substance. ...

Use models to compare the phases of matter and the physical changes they undergo.

PS.PSc.1.2

physical-and-chemical-properties-of-matter

Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter

The characteristics that enable us to distinguish one substance from another are called properties.

Physical Properties of Matter

A physical property is ...

molecular-comparison-of-gases-liquids-and-solids

Molecular Comparison of Gases, Liquids, and Solids

Particles in a solid are tightly packed together (fixed shape) and often arranged in a regular pattern; in a liquid, they are close together with no ...

Intermolecular vs Intramolecular Forces

Intermolecular forces (IMF) are electrostatic attractions arising from charge-charge interactions between molecules. The strength of the intermolecular ...

Intermolecular Forces

Atoms and molecules interact through bonds (or forces): intramolecular and intermolecular. The forces are electrostatic as they arise from interactions ...

comparing-intermolecular-forces-melting-point-boiling-point

Comparing Intermolecular Forces: Melting Point, Boiling Point, and Miscibility

Intermolecular forces are attractive forces that exist between molecules. They dictate several bulk properties, such as melting points, boiling points, ...

Carry out investigations to compare physical and chemical properties of matter.

PS.PSc.1.3

The Atomic Theory of Matter

The earliest recorded discussion of the basic structure of matter comes from ancient Greek philosophers. Leucippus and Democritus argued that all matter ...

Subatomic Particles

Dalton was only partially correct about the particles that make up matter. All matter is composed of atoms, and atoms are composed of three smaller ...

The Bohr Model

Following the work of Ernest Rutherford and his colleagues in the early twentieth century, the picture of atoms consisting of tiny dense nuclei surrounded ...

Emission Spectra

When solids, liquids, or condensed gases are heated sufficiently, they radiate some of the excess energy as light. Photons produced in this manner have a ...

The de Broglie Wavelength

In the macroscopic world, objects that are large enough to be seen by the naked eye follow the rules of classical physics. A billiard ball moving on a ...

The Uncertainty Principle

Werner Heisenberg considered the limits of how accurately one can measure properties of an electron or other microscopic particles. He determined that ...

Use models to interpret the data presented in Bohr diagrams and electron dot diagrams for neutral atoms of elements 1 through 18.

PS.PSc.1.4

Ions and Ionic Charges

In ordinary chemical reactions, the nucleus &mdash; which contains the protons and neutrons of each atom and thus identifies the element &mdash; remains ...

Use models to compare representations of atoms, ions, and isotopes.

PS.PSc.1.5

The Periodic Table

As early chemists discovered more elements, they realized that various elements could be grouped by their similar chemical behaviors. One such grouping ...

Periodic Classification of the Elements

The periodic table arranges atoms based on increasing atomic number so that elements with the same chemical properties recur periodically. When their ...

atomic-radii-and-effective-nuclear-charge

Atomic Radii and Effective Nuclear Charge

The elements in groups of the periodic table exhibit similar chemical behavior. This similarity occurs because the members of a group have the same number ...

Ionic Radii

Ionic radius is the measure used to describe the size of an ion. A cation always has fewer electrons and the same number of protons as the parent atom; it ...

Ionization Energy

The amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from a gaseous atom in its ground state is called its first ionization energy ...

Electron Affinity

The electron affinity (EA) is the energy change for adding an electron to a gaseous atom to form an anion (negative ion).



This process can be either ...

Alkali Metals

Group 1 elements are soft and shiny metallic solids. They are malleable, ductile, and good conductors of heat and electricity. The melting points of the ...

Halogens

Group 17 elements, known as halogens, are nonmetals. At room temperature, fluorine and chlorine are gases, bromine is a liquid, and iodine a solid. ...

Noble Gases


The elements in group 18 are noble gases (helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon). They earned the name &ldquo;noble&rdquo; because they were ...

Use the Periodic Table as a model to predict the relative properties (metallic/nonmetallic character, ionic charge, and reactivity) and arrangement of elements based on the pattern of valence electrons in the outermost energy levels of atoms.

PS.PSc.1.6

Understand types, properties, and structure of matter.

How Acids and Bases Form Ions

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