Name: heat transfer and specific heat
Uploaded: 2025-06-17T07:55:58.000Z
Duration: 2 min 46 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

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North Carolina K-12 Science Standard Course of Study

9-12

Chemistry

Energy

PS.Chm.7.2

Quantifying Heat

Energia wewnętrzna jest definiowana przez wzajemną konwersję ciepła i pracy. Ale jak mierzy się ciepło?

Każda substancja posiada energię cieplną. Kiedy system doświadcza różnicy temperatur w stosunku do otoczenia, energia cieplna przepływa z materii o wyższej temperaturze do materii o niższej temperaturze. Ten transfer energii cieplnej jest również nazywany wymianą ciepła i jest mierzony w dżulach.

Z drugiej strony temperatura opisuje właściwość energii cieplnej i jest mierzona w stopniach Celsjusza lub Kelwinów. Tak więc temperatura jest niezależna od substancji, w przeciwieństwie do ciepła, które zależy od liczby i rodzaju cząsteczek w układzie. 

Ciepło można zmierzyć za pomocą techniki zwanej kalorymetrią, która wykorzystuje związek między ciepłem a zmianą temperatury systemu.

Gdy kawałek żelazka o temperaturze 114 °C zostanie umieszczony w wodzie o temperaturze pokojowej, ciepło przepływa z żelazka do wody, aż osiągną tę samą temperaturę. Gdy nie ma przepływu ciepła netto, znajdują się w równowadze termicznej.

W systemie izolowanym woda zyskuje dokładnie tyle samo ciepła, ile traci żelazko. Ale końcowa temperatura jest tylko o jeden stopień wyższa od początkowej temperatury wody, podczas gdy żelazko ostygło o 93 °C.

Ilość przenoszonego ciepła jest proporcjonalna do zmiany temperatury ΔT.

Stała proporcjonalności C, czyli "pojemność cieplna",  to ilość ciepła potrzebna do podniesienia temperatury systemu o jeden kelwin, czyli jeden stopień Celsjusza. 

Pojemność cieplna zależy od rodzaju substancji: system o dużej pojemności cieplnej, taki jak woda, musi wchłonąć więcej ciepła, aby podnieść swoją temperaturę, niż system o mniejszej pojemności cieplnej, taki jak żelazo.

Pojemność cieplna zależy również od masy substancji. Ciepło właściwe, Cs lub molowa pojemność cieplna, Cm, opisuje ilość ciepła potrzebną do podniesienia temperatury 1 grama lub 1 mola substancji o 1 °C. Zatem jednostka jest podawana w dżulach na gram stopnia Celsjusza lub w dżulach na stopień molowy stopnia Celsjusza.  

Tak więc, jeśli znane są właściwe pojemności cieplne i zmiana temperatury systemu, wartość ciepła można obliczyć na podstawie ich iloczynu.

kwantyfikacja ciepła

<h4>Energia cieplna</h4>

Mikroskopowo energia cieplna jest energią kinetyczną związaną z losowym ruchem atomów i cząsteczek. Temperatura jest ilościową miarą „gorąco” lub „zimno”, która zależy od ilości energii cieplnej. Kiedy atomy i cząsteczki w obiekcie poruszają się lub szybko wibrują, mają wyższą średnią energię kinetyczną Ek (lub wyższą energię cieplną), a obiekt jest postrzegany jako „gorący” lub jest opisywany jako znajdujący się w wyższej temperaturze temperatura. Kiedy atomy i cząsteczki poruszają się powoli, mają niższą średnią Ek (lub niższą energię cieplną), a obiekt jest postrzegany jako „zimny” lub opisywany jako mający niższą temperaturę.

Zakładając, że nie zachodzi żadna reakcja chemiczna ani zmiana fazowa (taka jak topienie lub odparowanie), zwiększenie ilości energii cieplnej w próbce materii spowoduje wzrost jej temperatury, natomiast zmniejszenie ilości energii cieplnej w próbce materii spowoduje jej temperatura spadnie.

<h4>Ciepło</h4>

Ciepło (q) to przekazywanie energii cieplnej pomiędzy dwoma ciałami o różnych temperaturach. Przepływ ciepła zwiększa energię cieplną jednego ciała i zmniejsza energię cieplną drugiego. Ciepło przepływa samoistnie od ciepła do zimna (tj. tylko w jednym kierunku) i trwa, dopóki obie substancje nie osiągną tej samej temperatury. Zmiany ciepła mierzy się poprzez zmiany temperatury.

Jednostką ciepła, pracy i energii w układzie SI jest dżul. Dżul (J) definiuje się jako ilość energii zużytej, gdy siła 1 niutona przesuwa obiekt o 1 metr. Został nazwany na cześć angielskiego fizyka Jamesa Prescotta Joule’a. Jeden dżul odpowiada 1 kg m2/s2, co jest również nazywane 1 niutonometrem. Jeden kilodżul (kJ) to 1000 dżuli. Aby ujednolicić definicję, jedną kalorię ustalono na 4,184 dżula.

<h4>Transfer energii cieplnej</h4>

Pojemność cieplna (C) ciała materii to ilość ciepła (q), które ciało to absorbuje lub uwalnia, gdy ulega zmianie temperatury (ΔT) o 1 stopień C (lub równoważnie 1 kelwin):

<img alt="Eq1" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/794/794_Equations-01.png" style="height: 40px;">

Pojemność cieplna zależy zarówno od rodzaju, jak i ilości substancji, która pochłania lub oddaje ciepło. Zatem pojemność cieplna jest właściwością ekstensywną — jej wartość jest proporcjonalna do ilości substancji. Rozważmy na przykład pojemność cieplną dwóch żeliwnych patelni. Pojemność cieplna dużej patelni jest pięciokrotnie większa niż małej patelni, ponieważ chociaż obie są wykonane z tego samego materiału, masa dużej patelni jest pięć razy większa niż masa małej patelni. Większa masa oznacza, że w większym naczyniu znajduje się więcej atomów, zatem potrzeba więcej energii, aby wszystkie te atomy wibrowały szybciej. Pojemność cieplną małej patelni żeliwnej wyznacza się obserwując, że potrzeba 18 140 J energii (q), aby ogrzać patelnię o 50,0 °C (ΔT):

<img alt="Eq1" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/794/794_Equations-02.png" style="height: 40px;">

Większa patelnia żeliwna, choć wykonana z tej samej substancji, potrzebuje 90 700 J energii (q), aby podnieść jej temperaturę o 50,0 °C (ΔT). Większa patelnia ma (proporcjonalnie) większą pojemność cieplną, ponieważ większa ilość materiału wymaga (proporcjonalnie) większej ilości energii, aby uzyskać tę samą zmianę temperatury:

<img alt="Eq1" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/794/794_Equations-03.png" style="height: 40px;">

Ciepło właściwe (c) substancji, powszechnie nazywane „ciepłem właściwym”, to ilość ciepła potrzebna do podniesienia temperatury 1 grama substancji o 1 stopień Celsjusza (lub 1 kelwin):

<img alt="Eq1" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/794/794_Equations-04.png" style="height: 40px;">

Ciepło właściwe zależy tylko od rodzaju substancji pochłaniającej lub oddającej ciepło. Jest to właściwość intensywna, niezależna od ilości substancji. Na przykład mała żeliwna patelnia ma masę 808 g. Ciepło właściwe żelaza (materiału, z którego wykonano patelnię) wynosi zatem:

<img alt="Eq1" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/794/794_Equations-05.png" style="height: 40px;">

Duża patelnia ma masę 4040 g. Korzystając z danych dla tej patelni, możemy również obliczyć ciepło właściwe żelaza:

<img alt="Eq1" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/794/794_Equations-06.png" style="height: 40px;">

Chociaż duża patelnia jest masywniejsza niż mała, ponieważ obie są wykonane z tego samego materiału, obie dają tę samą wartość ciepła właściwego (materiał konstrukcyjny, żelazo). Należy zauważyć, że ciepło właściwe jest mierzone w jednostkach energii na temperaturę na masę i jest właściwością intensywną, wynikającą ze stosunku dwóch różnych właściwości (ciepła i masy). Molowa pojemność cieplna, również właściwość intensywna, to pojemność cieplna na mol określonej substancji, wyrażana w jednostkach J/mol⋅°C.

Woda ma stosunkowo wysokie ciepło właściwe (około 4,2 J/g⋅°C dla cieczy i 2,09 J/g⋅°C dla ciała stałego); większość metali ma znacznie niższe ciepło właściwe (zwykle poniżej 1 J/g⋅°C). Znając masę (m) substancji i jej ciepło właściwe (c), można określić ilość ciepła q wchodzącego do substancji lub opuszczającego ją, mierząc zmianę temperatury (ΔT) przed i po uzyskaniu lub utracie ciepła:

<img alt="Eq7" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/794/794_Equations-07v3.png" style="height: 20px;">
<img alt="Eq8" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/794/794_Equations-08v4.png" style="height: 20px;">

Jeśli substancja zyskuje energię cieplną, jej temperatura wzrasta, jej temperatura końcowa jest wyższa niż temperatura początkowa, Tfinal - Tinitial ma wartość dodatnią, a wartość q jest dodatnia. Jeśli substancja traci energię cieplną, jej temperatura spada, temperatura końcowa jest niższa od temperatury początkowej, Tfinal - Tinitial ma wartość ujemną, a wartość q jest ujemna.

Należy zauważyć, że zależność między ciepłem, ciepłem właściwym, masą i zmianą temperatury można wykorzystać do określenia dowolnej z tych wielkości (nie tylko ciepła), jeśli pozostałe trzy są znane lub można je wywnioskować.

Kwantyfikacja ciepła

Ciepło 

Mikroskopowo energia cieplna to energia kinetyczna związana z losowym ruchem atomów i cząsteczek. Temperatura to ...

Education

JoVE Core

Chemia

Jeden

Thermochemistry

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KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

Kluczowe terminy i pojęcia

heat transfer and specific heat

Heat transfer and specific heat explain how thermal energy moves and how materials respond to it. Thermal energy is the kinetic energy linked to the random motion of atoms and molecules. Temperature is a measure of how hot or cold a substance is, and it depends on how much thermal energy those particles have.

When atoms and molecules move or vibrate faster, their average kinetic energy is higher. That means the object has more thermal energy and a higher temperature. When they move more slowly, the thermal energy is lower and the temperature drops. If no chemical reaction or phase change, such as melting or vaporizing, occurs, adding thermal energy raises temperature and removing it lowers temperature.

Heat, written as q, is the transfer of thermal energy between two bodies at different temperatures. Heat flow increases the thermal energy of one body and decreases the thermal energy of the other. It moves spontaneously from hot to cold and continues until both substances reach the same temperature. Changes in heat are tracked by changes in temperature.

The SI unit for heat, work, and energy is the joule. One joule is the energy used when a force of 1 newton moves an object 1 meter. It is also equal to 1 kg m^2/s^2, or 1 newton-meter. A kilojoule is 1000 joules, and one calorie is defined as 4.184 joules.

Heat capacity, C, tells how much heat a body absorbs or releases when its temperature changes by 1 degree C, or 1 kelvin. It depends on both the type of substance and the amount present, so it is an extensive property. A large cast iron frying pan has a heat capacity five times greater than a small one because it has five times more mass. More mass means more atoms, so more energy is needed to make all of them vibrate faster.

The small cast iron frying pan in the example takes 18,140 J of energy to rise by 50.0 °C. The larger pan needs 90,700 J to rise by the same amount. Even though both pans are made of the same material, the larger one needs proportionally more energy because it contains more matter.

Specific heat capacity, often called specific heat, is the heat needed to raise 1 gram of a substance by 1 degree Celsius, or 1 kelvin. It depends only on the kind of substance, so it is an intensive property. Using the mass and temperature change of the small pan, the specific heat of iron can be calculated. The large pan gives the same result, even though its mass is greater.

Specific heat is measured in units of energy per temperature per mass. Because it is a ratio of heat and mass, it is intensive even though those two quantities are extensive. The molar heat capacity is another intensive property. It is the heat capacity per mole of a substance and has units of J/mol·°C.

Water has a relatively high specific heat, about 4.2 J/g·°C for liquid water and 2.09 J/g·°C for solid water. Most metals have much lower specific heats, usually less than 1 J/g·°C. If the mass of a substance, its specific heat, and its temperature change are known, the amount of heat entering or leaving it can be found. A positive q means thermal energy is gained and temperature rises. A negative q means thermal energy is lost and temperature falls.

Heat Transfer and Specific Heat

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quantifying heat

Heat transfer and specific heat explain how thermal energy moves and how materials respond to it. Thermal energy is the kinetic energy linked to the random motion of atoms and molecules. Temperature is a measure of how hot or cold a substance is, and it depends on how much thermal energy those particles have. When atoms and molecules move or vibrate faster, their average kinetic energy is higher. That means the object has more thermal energy and a higher temperature. When they move more...

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key terms and concepts

Learn how heat moves between objects, why temperature changes, and how heat capacity and specific heat help measure thermal energy in materials.

Heat Transfer and Specific Heat | JoVE K12

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JoVE Core Chemistry brings general chemistry concepts to life using concise and easy-to-understand animated video lessons. Plus, in the scientist-in-action videos, we demonstrate classical and original research experiments performed in today's laboratories worldwide.

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Modes of Heat Transfer

Classifying Matter by State

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Classifying Matter by Composition

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Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter

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Physical Properties of Matter

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Intermolecular vs Intramolecular Forces

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Intermolecular Forces

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Comparing Intermolecular Forces: Melting Point, Boiling Point, and Miscibility

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Surface Tension, Capillary Action, and Viscosity

Surface Tension
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States of Matter and Phase Changes

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Phase Transitions

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Phase Transitions: Vaporization and Condensation

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Vapor Pressure

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Clausius-Clapeyron Equation

The equilibrium between a liquid and its vapor depends on the temperature of the system; a rise in temperature causes a corresponding rise in the vapor ...

Phase Transitions: Melting and Freezing

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phase-transitions-sublimation-and-deposition

Phase Transitions: Sublimation and Deposition

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Heating and Cooling Curves

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Phase Diagrams

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PS.Chm.7.1

Energy Basics

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First Law of Thermodynamics

Energy Conservation

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Thermal Energy&#160;

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Quantifying Work

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Enthalpy

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Thermochemical Equations

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Constant Pressure Calorimetry

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Hess's Law

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Standard Enthalpy of Formation

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Enthalpies of Reaction

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Use mathematics and computational thinking to execute simple calorimetric calculations based on the Law of Conservation of Energy.

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Applications of the Ideal Gas Law: Molar Mass, Density, and Volume

The volume occupied by one mole of a substance is its molar volume. The ideal gas law, PV = nRT, &nbsp;suggests that the volume of a given quantity of gas ...

mixtures-of-gases-dalton-s-law-of-partial-pressures-and-mole-fractions

Mixtures of Gases: Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures and Mole Fractions

Unless individual gases chemically react with each other, the individual gases in a mixture of gases do not affect each other&rsquo;s pressure. Each gas ...

chemical-stoichiometry-gases-using-ideal-gas-law-to-determine

Chemical Stoichiometry and Gases: Using Ideal Gas Law to Determine Moles

Chemical stoichiometry describes the quantitative relationships between reactants and products in chemical reactions.

In addition to measuring quantities ...

basic-postulates-kinetic-molecular-theory-particle-size-energy

Basic Postulates of Kinetic Molecular Theory: Particle Size, Energy, and Collision

The ideal-gas equation, which is empirical, describes the behavior of gases by establishing relationships between their macroscopic properties. For ...

kinetic-molecular-theory-gas-laws-explain-properties-gas

Kinetic Molecular Theory and Gas Laws Explain Properties of Gas Molecules

The test of the kinetic molecular theory (KMT) and its postulates is its ability to explain and describe the behavior of a gas. The various gas laws ...

kinetic-molecular-theory-molecular-velocities-temperature-kinetic

Kinetic Molecular Theory: Molecular Velocities, Temperature, and Kinetic Energy

The kinetic molecular theory qualitatively explains the behaviors described by the various gas laws. The postulates of this theory may be applied in a ...

Use mathematics and computational thinking to explain the relationships among pressure, temperature, volume, and quantity of gas, both qualitatively and quantitatively.

PS.Chm.7.3

Understand the relationship among pressure, temperature, volume, and phase.

Heat Transfer and Specific Heat

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