Name: ionization energy trends in the periodic table
Uploaded: 2020-09-03T13:38:28.000Z
Duration: 3 min 12 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

north-carolina-k-12-science-standard-course-of-study

NC K-12 Science Standard Course of Study

9-12

Chemistry

Matter and its Interactions

PS.Chm.2.2

Ionization Energy

Na zachowanie chemiczne atomów i jonów duży wpływ ma to, jak łatwo lub trudno jest usunąć ich elektrony, zwłaszcza najbardziej zewnętrzne elektrony, które uczestniczą w tworzeniu wiązań chemicznych. 

Energia potrzebna do usunięcia elektronu z atomu gazowego w stanie podstawowym nazywana jest pierwszą energią jonizacji i podawana jest w kJ/mol. Energia potrzebna do usunięcia następnego elektronu nazywana jest drugą energią jonizacji i tak dalej.

Przesuwając się w dół kolumny, energie jonizacji maleją. Przypomnijmy, że najwyższa główna liczba kwantowa elektronów walencyjnych wzrasta w dół kolumny, co prowadzi do większych rozmiarów atomów. Tak więc, im dalej znajdują się najbardziej zewnętrzne elektrony, tym łatwiej je usunąć.

W przypadku pierwiastków z grupy głównej energia jonizacji wzrasta w całym okresie. Przyczyna leży w rosnącej liczbie atomowej, w której elektrony walencyjne doświadczają wyższego efektywnego ładunku jądrowego, co utrudnia usunięcie najbardziej zewnętrznych elektronów. To wyjaśnia, dlaczego chlor ma wyższą energię jonizacji niż na przykład sód. Ogólnie rzecz biorąc, energia jonizacji jest minimalna dla metalu alkalicznego i wzrasta do szczytu z każdym gazem szlachetnym.

Metale przejściowe wykazują niewielki wzrost energii jonizacji w całym okresie, a elementy bloku f wykazują jeszcze mniejszą zmianę. 

Istnieją jednak pewne wyjątki, które należy wziąć pod uwagę.

Bor ma mniejszą energię jonizacji niż beryl, mimo że znajduje się dalej po prawej stronie układu okresowego pierwiastków. Beryl ma niższą energię 2s elektronów, podczas gdy bor ma wyższą energię 2p elektronu, dzięki czemu jego usuwanie jest energetycznie korzystniejsze. 

Innym wyjątkiem jest tlen, który ma niższą energię pierwszej jonizacji niż azot. W porównaniu z azotem tlen ma cztery p-elektrony, a usunięcie jednego elektronu eliminuje odpychanie elektron-elektron. W związku z tym do jonizacji potrzeba mniej energii. Wyjątki te obserwuje się również w kolejnych okresach.

Usuwanie elektronów z kationów jest trudniejsze niż z atomów obojętnych. Ogólnie rzecz biorąc, kolejne energie jonizacji zwiększają się dla pierwiastków. 

Weź pod uwagę potas. Druga energia jonizacji jest znacznie wyższa, ponieważ polega na usunięciu elektronu rdzenia z jonu o konfiguracji gazu szlachetnego. 

Podobnie w przypadku wapnia następuje duży wzrost od drugiej do trzeciej energii jonizacji, gdy elektron rdzeniowy jest usuwany z kationu o konfiguracji gazu szlachetnego.

energia jonizacji

Ilość energii potrzebnej do usunięcia najluźniej związanego elektronu z atomu gazowego w jego stanie podstawowym nazywa się pierwszą energią jonizacji (IE1). Pierwsza energia jonizacji pierwiastka, X, to energia potrzebna do utworzenia kationu o ładunku 1+:

<img alt="Eq1" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1049/1049_Equations-01.png" style="height: 40px;">

Energia wymagana do usunięcia drugiego najluźniej związanego elektronu nazywana jest drugą energią jonizacji (IE2).

<img alt="Eq2" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1049/1049_Equations-02.png" style="height: 40px;">

Energia potrzebna do usunięcia trzeciego elektronu jest energią trzeciej jonizacji i tak dalej. Do usunięcia elektronów z atomów lub jonów zawsze wymagana jest energia, więc procesy jonizacji są endotermiczne, a wartości IE są zawsze dodatnie. W przypadku większych atomów najluźniej związany elektron znajduje się dalej od jądra i dlatego jest najłatwiejszy do usunięcia. Zatem wraz ze wzrostem rozmiaru promienia atomowyego energia jonizacji powinna spadać.

W pewnym okresie wskaźnik IE1 z reguły wzrasta wraz ze wzrostem Z. W dalszej części grupy wartość IE1 najczęściej maleje wraz ze wzrostem Z. Istnieją jednak pewne systematyczne odchylenia od tej tendencji. Należy zauważyć, że energia jonizacji boru (liczba atomowa 5) jest mniejsza niż berylu (liczba atomowa 4), mimo że ładunek jądrowy boru jest większy o jeden proton. Można to wytłumaczyć tym, że energia podpowłok wzrasta wraz ze wzrostem l, w wyniku penetracji i ekranowania. W obrębie dowolnej powłoki elektrony s mają niższą energię niż elektrony p. Oznacza to, że elektron s jest trudniejszy do usunięcia z atomu niż elektron p na tej samej powłoce. Elektron usunięty podczas jonizacji berylu ([He]2s2) jest elektronem s, natomiast elektron usunięty podczas jonizacji boru ([He]2s22p1) jest elektronem p; powoduje to niższą energię pierwszej jonizacji boru, mimo że jego ładunek jądrowy jest większy o jeden proton. Zatem widzimy niewielkie odchylenie od przewidywanego trendu występujące za każdym razem, gdy rozpoczyna się nowa podpowłoka.

Kolejne odchylenie ma miejsce, gdy orbitale zostają zapełnione w ponad połowie. Energia pierwszej jonizacji dla tlenu jest nieco mniejsza niż dla azotu, pomimo tendencji wzrostu wartości IE1 w okresie. W przypadku tlenu usunięcie jednego elektronu wyeliminuje odpychanie elektron-elektron spowodowane parowaniem elektronów na orbicie 2p i spowoduje powstanie orbitalu w połowie wypełnionego (co jest korzystne energetycznie). Analogiczne zmiany zachodzą w kolejnych okresach.

Usunięcie elektronu z kationu jest trudniejsze niż usunięcie elektronu z obojętnego atomu ze względu na większe przyciąganie elektrostatyczne do kationu. Podobnie usunięcie elektronu z kationu o większym ładunku dodatnim jest trudniejsze niż usunięcie elektronu z jonu o niższym ładunku. Zatem kolejne energie jonizacji dla jednego pierwiastka zawsze rosną. Jak widać w tabeli 1, występuje duży wzrost energii jonizacji dla każdego pierwiastka. Skok ten odpowiada usunięciu elektronów z rdzenia, które są trudniejsze do usunięcia niż elektrony walencyjne. Na przykład Sc i Ga mają po trzy elektrony walencyjne, więc szybki wzrost energii jonizacji następuje po trzeciej jonizacji.

Tabela 1: Kolejne energie jonizacji wybranych pierwiastków (kJ/mol) 

<table style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">
	<tbody style="border: 1px solid black;">
		<tr>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">Element</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">IE1</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">IE2</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">IE3</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">IE4</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">IE5</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">IE6</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">IE7</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">K</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">418.8</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">3051.8</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">4419.6</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">5876.9</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">7975.5</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">9590.6</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">11343</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">Ca</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">589.8</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">1145.4</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">4912.4</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">6490.6</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">8153.0</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">10495.7</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">12272.9</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">Sc</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">633.1</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">1235.0</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">2388.7</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">7090.6</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">8842.9</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">10679.0</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">13315.0</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">Ga</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">578.8</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">1979.4</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">2964.6</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">6180</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">8298.7</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">10873.9</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">13594.8</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">Ge</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">762.2</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">1537.5</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">3302.1</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">4410.6</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">9021.4</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">Not available</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">Not available</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">As</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">944.5</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">1793.6</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">2735.5</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">4836.8</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">6042.9</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">12311.5</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">Not available</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

Energia jonizacji

Ilość energii potrzebnej do usunięcia najluźniej związanego elektronu z atomu gazowego w jego stanie podstawowym nazywana jest jego pierwszą energią jonizacji ...

Education

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Periodic Properties of the Elements

Właściwości okresowe pierwiastków

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Kluczowe terminy i pojęcia

ionization energy trends in the periodic table

Ionization energy is the energy needed to remove an electron from a gaseous atom or ion in its ground state. The first ionization energy, or IE1, removes the most loosely bound electron and forms a 1+ cation. The second ionization energy, IE2, removes the next electron, and each later ionization energy removes another electron from the atom or ion.

Ionization always requires energy, so these processes are endothermic. That means ionization energy values are always positive. In general, larger atoms have lower ionization energy because their outermost electrons are farther from the nucleus and easier to remove.

Across a period, first ionization energy generally increases as atomic number increases. Down a group, first ionization energy generally decreases as atomic number increases. The trend is useful, but there are some clear exceptions.

One exception appears when a new subshell begins. Boron has a lower first ionization energy than beryllium, even though boron has one more proton. This happens because s electrons are lower in energy than p electrons in the same shell, so the s electron in beryllium is harder to remove than the p electron in boron. The effect comes from penetration and shielding.

Another exception appears when a p subshell becomes more than half filled. Oxygen has a slightly lower first ionization energy than nitrogen. Removing one electron from oxygen reduces electron-electron repulsion in the 2p orbital and gives a more stable half-filled orbital.

Successive ionization energies always increase. It is harder to remove an electron from a cation than from a neutral atom because the positive charge pulls more strongly on the remaining electrons. It is even harder to remove an electron from a cation with a higher positive charge.

The large jump in successive ionization energies shows when core electrons begin to be removed. Core electrons are harder to remove than valence electrons. For example, scandium and gallium both have three valence electrons, so the sharp rise in ionization energy comes after the third ionization. The table of values for K, Ca, Sc, Ga, Ge, and As shows this pattern clearly.

Ionization Energy Trends in the Periodic Table

periodic classification of the elements

How Valence Electrons Shape the Periodic Table

The periodic table organizes elements by increasing atomic number, and it also shows why elements in the same group behave alike. As the electron configurations are placed into the table, a repeating pattern appears in the outer shells of atoms. These outer electrons are called valence electrons, and they play the biggest role in chemical reactions. They are the highest-energy electrons in an atom, so they are easier to lose or share than core electrons. Valence electrons also help determine...

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Periodic Trends in Atomic Size

Periodic trends in atomic size help explain why atoms get larger or smaller across the periodic table. Elements in the same group show similar chemical behavior because they have the same number and arrangement of valence electrons. Across a period, each new element adds one proton to the nucleus and one electron to the valence shell. Down a group, the number of valence electrons stays the same, but the principal quantum number increases by one. Atomic radius is not easy to define with perfect...

ionization energy

Ionization energy is the energy needed to remove an electron from a gaseous atom or ion in its ground state. The first ionization energy, or IE1, removes the most loosely bound electron and forms a 1+ cation. The second ionization energy, IE2, removes the next electron, and each later ionization energy removes another electron from the atom or ion. Ionization always requires energy, so these processes are endothermic. That means ionization energy values are always positive. In general, larger...

ionic radii

How Ionic Charge Changes Ion Size

Ionic radius describes the size of an ion. It changes when an atom gains or loses electrons. Cations are positive ions with fewer electrons than the parent atom, and they are smaller than the atoms they come from. Aluminum shows this pattern clearly. A neutral aluminum atom has a covalent radius of 118 pm, while Al3+ has an ionic radius of 68 pm. When electrons are removed from the outer valence shell, the remaining core electrons feel a stronger effective nuclear charge, or Zeff. That pull...

electron affinity

Electron Affinity Trends on the Periodic Table

Electron affinity is the energy change that happens when a gaseous atom gains an electron and becomes a negative ion, or anion. For many elements, this process releases energy, so the electron affinity value is negative. For some elements, energy must be added instead, so the value is positive. Electron affinity also applies when more than one electron is added. The second electron affinity is the energy change for adding an electron to an anion to make a 2− ion. Later electron affinities...

alkali metals

Alkali Metals: Reactivity Trends

Alkali metals are Group 1 elements with one valence electron. They are soft, shiny metallic solids that are malleable, ductile, and good conductors of heat and electricity. Their melting points are unusually low for metals and drop as you move down the group. Density generally increases down the group, except for potassium. The trend in atomic size helps explain their behavior. Moving from lithium to cesium, each element has a higher principal quantum number, so the outer electron is farther...

halogens

Halogens: Trends and Reactions

Halogens are Group 17 nonmetals that show clear trends in structure and reactivity. At room temperature, fluorine and chlorine are gases, bromine is a liquid, and iodine is a solid. Astatine is highly unstable and radioactive, so most of its properties are still unknown because it has a very short half-life. Tennessine is a synthetic element that is also predicted to belong to this group. These elements do not usually exist as single atoms. Instead, they form diatomic molecules, which means...

noble gases

Noble Gases: Sources, Uses, and Reactions

Noble gases are the group 18 elements helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon. They were called “noble” because they were once thought to be nonreactive. That idea changed in 1962, when Dr. Neil Bartlett at the University of British Columbia showed that this assumption was not fully correct. These gases occur in very small amounts in the atmosphere. Some natural gas contains 1–2% helium by mass. Helium is separated from natural gas by removing the condensable components, which leaves...

key terms and concepts

Explore first and successive ionization energy, periodic trends, and key exceptions such as boron, oxygen, and the jump to core electrons.

Ionization Energy Trends in the Periodic Table | JoVE K12

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Periodic Table Trends: Atomic Radii, Ionization, and Electronegativity

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Scientific Laws

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The most common types of radioactivity are &#945; decay, &#946; decay, &#947; decay, neutron emission, and electron capture.
Alpha (&#945;) decay is the ...

Nuclear Stability

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Nuclear Binding Energy

The difference between the calculated and experimentally measured masses is known as the mass defect of the atom. In the case of helium-4, the mass defect ...

Radioactive Decay and Radiometric Dating

Radioactivity is a spontaneous disintegration of an unstable nuclide and is a random process, as all the nuclei in the sample do not decay simultaneously. ...

Nuclear Fission

Many heavier elements with smaller binding energies per nucleon can decompose into more stable elements that have intermediate mass numbers and larger ...

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Controlled nuclear fission reactions are used to generate electricity. Any nuclear reactor that produces power via the fission of uranium or plutonium by ...

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The process of converting very light nuclei into heavier nuclei is also accompanied by the conversion of mass into large amounts of energy, a process ...

Nuclear Transmutation

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Use models to compare nuclear reactions including alpha decay, beta decay and gamma decay; nuclear fusion and nuclear fission.

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Atomic Orbitals

An atomic orbital represents the three-dimensional regions in an atom where an electron has the highest probability to reside. The radial distribution ...

The Pauli Exclusion Principle

The arrangement of electrons in the orbitals of an atom is called its electron configuration. We describe an electron configuration with a symbol that ...

The Energies of Atomic Orbitals

In an atom, the negatively charged electrons are attracted to the positively charged nucleus. In a multielectron atom, electron-electron repulsions are ...

The Aufbau Principle and Hund's Rule

To determine the electron configuration for any particular atom, we can build the structures in the order of atomic numbers. Beginning with hydrogen, and ...

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Electron Configuration of Multielectron Atoms

The alkali metal sodium (atomic number 11) has one more electron than the neon atom. This electron must go into the lowest-energy subshell available, the ...

Use models to explain how electrons are distributed in atoms.

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Periodic Classification of the Elements

The periodic table arranges atoms based on increasing atomic number so that elements with the same chemical properties recur periodically. When their ...

The Periodic Table

As early chemists discovered more elements, they realized that various elements could be grouped by their similar chemical behaviors. One such grouping ...

Atomic Mass

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Molar Mass

The identity of a substance is defined not only by the types of atoms or ions it contains but by the quantity of each type of atom or ion. For example, ...

Use the Periodic Table as a model to predict the relative properties of elements based on the pattern of valence electrons in the outermost energy levels of atoms.

PS.Chm.2.1

Atomic Radii and Effective Nuclear Charge

The elements in groups of the periodic table exhibit similar chemical behavior. This similarity occurs because the members of a group have the same number ...

Ionic Radii

Ionic radius is the measure used to describe the size of an ion. A cation always has fewer electrons and the same number of protons as the parent atom; it ...

The amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from a gaseous atom in its ground state is called its first ionization energy ...

Electron Affinity

The electron affinity (EA) is the energy change for adding an electron to a gaseous atom to form an anion (negative ion).



This process can be either ...

Construct an explanation to infer the atomic size, reactivity, electronegativity, and ionization energy of an element based on its position in the Periodic Table.

Types of Chemical Bonds

Chemical bonding theories were pioneered by American chemist Gilbert&#xA0;N. Lewis. He developed a model called the Lewis model to explain the type and ...

Lewis Symbols and the Octet Rule

Chemical bonds are complex interactions between two or more atoms or ions, which reduce the potential energy of the molecule. Gilbert N. Lewis developed a ...

Ionic Bonding and Electron Transfer

Ions are atoms or molecules bearing an electrical charge. A cation (a positive ion) forms when a neutral atom loses one or more electrons from its valence ...

The Born-Haber Cycle

Lattice Energy&#xA0;

An ionic compound is stable because of the electrostatic attraction between its positive and negative ions. The lattice energy of a ...

trends-in-lattice-energy-ion-size-and-charge

Trends in Lattice Energy: Ion Size and Charge

An ionic compound is stable because of the electrostatic attraction between its positive and negative ions. The lattice energy of a compound is a measure ...

Covalent Bonding and Lewis Structures

Compared to ionic bonds, which results from the transfer of electrons between metallic and nonmetallic atoms, covalent bonds result from the mutual ...

Electronegativity

Whether a bond is nonpolar or polar covalent is determined by a property of the bonding atoms called electronegativity.&#xA0;

Electronegativity values of ...

Analyze and interpret data to explain the mechanisms and properties of the two main types of intramolecular (ionic and covalent) bonds.

PS.Chm.3.1

Analyze the structure of atoms and isotopes.

Ionization Energy Trends in the Periodic Table

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